Medium chain fatty acid esters of beta-hydroxybutyrate and butanediol and compositions and methods for using same

ABSTRACT

Aspects of the present disclosure include fatty acid β-hydroxyester compounds (e.g., fatty acid esters of β-hydroxybutyrate), fatty acid esters of butanediol, and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof. Also provided are pharmaceutical compositions having one or more fatty acid β-hydroxyester compounds and/or one or more fatty acid esters of butanediol. Methods for treating a subject by administering one or more esters to the subject are also provided. Kits containing one or more of the subject esters are also described.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

Pursuant to 35 U.S.C. § 119(e), this application claims priority to thefiling date of U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62/346,975, filedon Jun. 7, 2016, the disclosure of which is herein incorporated byreference in its entirety.

STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH

This invention was made with government support under Grant Nos. R24DK085610 and K08 AG048354 awarded by the National Institutes of Health.The government has certain rights in the invention.

INTRODUCTION

Ketogenic diets and ketone bodies are of interest for the treatment of avariety of human disorders including epilepsy, dementia and diseases ofaging. Ketone bodies are small compounds created from fat that serve asa substitute for sugar when the body's energy stores are depleted, suchas when fasting or during strenuous exercise. Ketogenic diets stimulatethe production of ketone bodies by containing very little sugar or othercarbohydrates. The primary ketone bodies in humans are acetoacetate(AcAc) and β-hydroxybutyrate (BHB). Ketogenic diets are used clinicallyas a therapy for epilepsy, but they are often difficult to adhere to forlong periods of time. The extremely high fat content (and lowcarbohydrate content) can make foods of a ketogenic diet unpalatable,and sometimes cause gastrointestinal problems, kidney stones, highcholesterol and other side effects.

BHB is a metabolic intermediate that is a currency for generatingcellular energy, but also has several signaling functions separate fromenergy production. Either or both of the energy and signaling functionsmay be important for BHB's effects on human disease. During times ofscarce glucose, for example during fasting or strenuous exercise, BHB isthe currency by which energy stored in adipose tissue is turned intofuel that can be used by cells throughout the body to sustain theirfunctions. Fat mobilized from adipose tissue is transported to the liverand converted into BHB. BHB circulates in the blood to all tissue. Afterbeing absorbed into a cell, BHB is broken down in the mitochondria togenerate acetyl-CoA that is further metabolized into ATP. This is thecanonical “energy currency” function of BHB.

In addition, BHB may have several signaling functions. Most of these areindependent of its function as an energy currency, in that they areactions of the BHB molecule itself, and are not generally secondaryeffects of its metabolism into acetyl-CoA and ATP. Signaling functionsmay include: 1) inhibition of class I and IIa histone deacetylases, withresulting changes in histone modifications and gene expression, as wellas changes in acetylation state and activity of non-histone proteins; 2)metabolism into acetyl-CoA results in increased cellular production ofacetyl-coA to serve as substrate for acetyltransferase enzymes,resulting in similar changes in histone and non-histone proteinacetylation as deacetylase inhibition; 3) covalent attachment tohistones and possibly other proteins in the form oflysine-β-hydroxybutyrylation, which may have similar effects aslysine-acetylation; 4) binding and activation of hydroxycarboxylic acidreceptor 2 (HCAR2) receptor with resultant alterations in adipose tissuemetabolism; 5) binding and inhibition of free fatty acid receptor 3(FFAR3) receptor with resultant changes in sympathetic nervous systemactivation and whole-body metabolic rate; and 6) inhibition of theNOD-like receptor 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome.

SUMMARY

Aspects of the present disclosure include fatty acid β-hydroxyestercompounds (e.g., fatty acid esters of β-hydroxybutyrate), fatty acidesters of butanediol, and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof.Also provided are pharmaceutical compositions having one or more fattyacid β-hydroxyester compounds and/or one or more fatty acid esters ofbutanediol. Methods for treating a subject by administering one or moreesters to the subject are also provided. Kits containing one or more ofthe subject esters are also described.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIGS. 1a and 1b depict the ¹H-NMR and GC-MS, respectively, of aC6-substituted ester of β-hydroxybutyrate according to certainembodiments.

FIGS. 2a and 2b depict the ¹H-NMR and GC-MS, respectively, of aC8-substituted ester of β-hydroxybutyrate according to certainembodiments.

FIGS. 3a and 3b depict the ¹H-NMR and GC-MS, respectively, of aC6-substituted fatty acid β-hydroxyester compound according to certainembodiments.

FIGS. 4a and 4b depict the ¹H-NMR and GC-MS, respectively, of a C6-acylsubstituted ester of butanediol according to certain embodiments.

FIGS. 5a and 5b depict the ¹H-NMR and GC-MS, respectively, of a C8-acylsubstituted ester of butanediol according to certain embodiments.

FIGS. 6a-6c depict the biological function of C6 and C8 esters ofbutanediol and β-hydroxybutyrate as tested by intraperitoneal injectioninto wild-type C57BL/6 male mice at two doses each. FIG. 6a depictsplasma concentration over 6 hours after injection of C6 and C8 esters ofβ-hydroxybutyrate. FIG. 6b depicts plasma concentration over 6 hoursafter injection of C6 and C8 esters of butanediol. FIG. 6c depictsplasma concentration over 4 hours after injection of C6 and C8 esters ofβ-hydroxybutyrate.

FIGS. 7a-7h demonstrate that ketogenic diet, but not fasting,consistently reduced epileptiform spikes in APPJ20 mice. (FIG. 7a )23-hour EEG recorded 2 days after starting KD shows ˜30% spike reductioncompared to prior baseline on control diet. Overnight fast shows nochange. (FIG. 7b ) Hourly spike totals during 23-hour EEG recordings.(FIG. 7c ) Spike reductions in individual mice, normalized to eachmouse's baseline recording (filled circles, P<0.05; bar=median). (FIG.7d ) Movement was similar in all diet conditions, as was (FIG. 7e )overall normalized gamma activity. (FIG. 7f ) Best-fit linear regressionlines with 95% CI for scatterplots of per-minute spikes and movement.APPJ20 normally have lower spikes with higher exploratory movement; onKD spikes are lower at all movement levels. (FIG. 7g ) Best-fit linearregression lines with 95% CI for scatterplots of per-minute normalizedgamma activity and movement showing no change in the rate of inductionof gamma activity by movement on KD. (FIG. 7h ) overall mean gamma poweris unchanged on KD. P values via T-test for two-way comparisons andANOVA with Tukey's correction for multiple comparisons. N=9-12 mice percondition; data for A, B, D, E show N=7 that completed all conditionswith high-quality data.

FIGS. 8a-8h depict the reduction in epileptiform spikes by KD continuesfor months, and is associated with cognitive improvement in habituationto the open field. (FIG. 8a ) Experimental timeline. (FIG. 8b ) In seven50-minute EEGs, APPJ20 on KD had ˜40% reduced spikes compared to mice oncontrol diet. (FIG. 8c ) Mean spikes/min across the 50 min recordingperiod; spikes for mice on control diet rise as exploratory activitywanes late in recordings. (FIG. 8d ) Best-fit linear regression lineswith 95% CI for scatterplots of per-minute spikes and movement showsthat on KD spikes are lower at all movement levels. (FIG. 8e ) Totalmovement (beam breaks) during post-habituation open fields on Day 53 and72 showing that exploration is similar between APP on KD and NTGcontrol. (FIGS. 8f-h ) total movement (FIG. 8f ), rearings (FIG. 8g ),and center movements (FIG. 8h ) are all similar between APP on KD andNTG control, showing successful habituation. P values via T-test fortwo-way comparisons and ANOVA with Tukey's correction for multiplecomparisons. N=4-6 per group.

FIGS. 9a-9h demonstrate that long-term ketogenic diet improves cognitionas well as, in males, survival. (FIG. 9a ) Change in body weights forAPPJ20 and NTG mice on either KD or control diet, started at 2 months ofage. (FIG. 9b ) Plasma BHB levels are the mean of six morningmeasurements taken about every two weeks from the start of the study.(FIGS. 9c, 9d ) Survival curves for APPJ20 males and females,respectively, on KD vs control diet. There were no deaths among NTGmice. (FIGS. 9e-9h ) Morris water maze performed three months afterstart of diets. Probe trials were done 24 hours after the finalhidden-platform training; reverse training began 24 hours after initialprobe trial. APP mice on KD showed improved learning in both initial andreverse training (FIGS. 9e, 9g ) but no difference in probe trials(FIGS. 9f, 9h ). P values via T-test for two-way comparisons and ANOVAwith Tukey's correction for multiple comparisons. N=21-26 pergenotype-diet group at start of study; N=11-14 per group for water maze.

FIGS. 10a-10f demonstrate that compounds described herein that aremetabolized to BHB immediately reduce epileptiform spikes. (FIG. 10a )Schematic of example ketogenic compounds having a medium-chain fattyacid ester-linked to BHB. (FIGS. 10b-10f ) Group of mice was injectedwith both C6-BHB and normal saline on different days, with EEGs recordedbefore and after each injection. (FIG. 10b ) Injection of C6-BHBincreased blood BHB levels, measured approximately 70-80 minutes afterinjection (following EEG). (FIG. 10c ) Injection of C6-BHB reducesspikes compared to both pre-injection baselines and injection of saline.(FIG. 10d ) Plot of average spikes over the 50-minute EEG recordingshows consistent reduction after C6-BHB injection, similar to KD. (FIG.10e ) Analysis of spike reduction after C6-BHB, compared to aftersaline, at the individual mouse level shows significant reductions formost mice (filled circles, P<0.05; bar =median). (FIG. 10f ) Differencein spikes between C6-BHB and saline injection was most pronounced whenmice were at rest (and gamma activity is lowest), similar to KD. Pvalues via T-test for two-way comparisons and ANOVA with Tukey'scorrection for multiple comparisons. N=22, analysis limited to 17 micethat completed all conditions with high-quality data.

FIG. 11 depicts intake over time of food containing differentconcentrations of C6 esters of β-hydroxybutyrate.

FIG. 12 depicts weight loss by mice over time after ingesting foodcontaining different amounts of C6 esters of β-hydroxybutyrate.

FIG. 13 depicts the blood glucose levels of mice over time while feedingwith food containing different amounts of C6 esters ofβ-hydroxybutyrate.

FIG. 14 depicts blood concentration of β-hydroxybutyrate over time afterfeeding mice with food having different amount of C6 esters ofβ-hydroxybutyrate.

FIG. 15 depicts intake over time of food containing the different estersof butanediol and β-hydroxybutyrate.

FIG. 16 depicts the change in weight by mice over time when fed foodcompositions supplemented with the different esters of butanediol andβ-hydroxybutyrate.

FIG. 17 depicts the blood glucose levels of mice over time while feedingwith food supplemented with different esters of butanediol andβ-hydroxybutyrate.

FIG. 18 depicts the blood concentration of β-hydroxybutyrate over timeafter feeding mice with food containing different esters of butanedioland β-hydroxybutyrate.

FIG. 19 depicts a comparison of the plasma β-hydroxybutyrate, bloodglucose and caloric intake of mice that consumed the control food andmice that consumed food supplemented with C6 esters ofβ-hydroxybutyrate.

DEFINITIONS

As used herein, the terms “treatment,” “treating,” and the like, referto obtaining a desired pharmacologic and/or physiologic effect. Theeffect may be prophylactic in terms of completely or partiallypreventing a condition, disease, pathological process or symptom thereofand/or may be therapeutic in terms of a partial or complete cure for acondition, disease, pathological process and/or adverse effectattributable to the condition, disease or pathological process.“Treatment,” as used herein, includes, e.g., any treatment of acondition, disease or pathological process in a mammal, particularly ina human, and includes: (a) preventing the condition, disease orpathological process from occurring in a subject which may bepredisposed to the condition, disease or pathological process but hasnot yet been diagnosed as having it; (b) inhibiting the condition ordisease, i.e., arresting its development; and (c) relieving thecondition, disease, or pathological process i.e., causing regression ofthe condition, disease or pathological process.

The terms “individual,” “subject,” “host,” and “patient,” usedinterchangeably herein, refer to a mammal, including, but not limitedto, murines (rats, mice), non-human primates, humans, canines, felines,ungulates (e.g., equines, bovines, ovines, porcines, caprines), etc.

A “therapeutically effective amount” or “efficacious amount” refers tothe amount of a compound that, when administered to a mammal or othersubject for treating a disease, is sufficient to effect such treatmentfor the disease. The “therapeutically effective amount” will varydepending on the compound or the cell, the disease and its severity andthe age, weight, etc., of the subject to be treated.

The terms “co-administration” and “in combination with” include theadministration of two or more therapeutic agents either simultaneously,concurrently or sequentially within no specific time limits. In oneembodiment, the agents are present in the cell or in the subject's bodyat the same time or exert their biological or therapeutic effect at thesame time. In one embodiment, the therapeutic agents are in the samecomposition or unit dosage form. In other embodiments, the therapeuticagents are in separate compositions or unit dosage forms. In certainembodiments, a first agent can be administered prior to (e.g., minutes,15 minutes, 30 minutes, 45 minutes, 1 hour, 2 hours, 4 hours, 6 hours,12 hours, 24 hours, 48 hours, 72 hours, 96 hours, 1 week, 2 weeks, 3weeks, 4 weeks, 5 weeks, 6 weeks, 8 weeks, or 12 weeks before),concomitantly with, or subsequent to (e.g., 5 minutes, 15 minutes, 30minutes, 45 minutes, 1 hour, 2 hours, 4 hours, 6 hours, 12 hours, 24hours, 48 hours, 72 hours, 96 hours, 1 week, 2 weeks, 3 weeks, 4 weeks,5 weeks, 6 weeks, 8 weeks, or 12 weeks after) the administration of asecond therapeutic agent.

As used herein, a “pharmaceutical composition” is meant to encompass acomposition suitable for administration to a subject, such as a mammal,especially a human. In general a “pharmaceutical composition” issterile, and is free of contaminants that are capable of eliciting anundesirable response within the subject (e.g., the compound(s) in thepharmaceutical composition is pharmaceutical grade). Pharmaceuticalcompositions can be designed for administration to subjects or patientsin need thereof via a number of different routes of administrationincluding oral, buccal, rectal, parenteral, intraperitoneal,intradermal, intratracheal and the like. In some embodiments thecomposition is suitable for administration by a transdermal route, usinga penetration enhancer other than dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO). In otherembodiments, the pharmaceutical compositions are suitable foradministration by a route other than transdermal administration. Apharmaceutical composition will in some embodiments include a subjectcompound and a pharmaceutically acceptable excipient. In someembodiments, a pharmaceutically acceptable excipient is other than DMSO.

As used herein, “pharmaceutically acceptable derivatives” of a compoundof the invention include salts, esters, enol ethers, enol esters,acetals, ketals, orthoesters, hemiacetals, hemiketals, acids, bases,solvates, hydrates or prodrugs thereof. Such derivatives may be readilyprepared by those of skill in this art using known methods for suchderivatization. The compounds produced may be administered to animals orhumans without substantial toxic effects and are either pharmaceuticallyactive or are prodrugs.

A “pharmaceutically acceptable salt” of a compound means a salt that ispharmaceutically acceptable and that possesses the desiredpharmacological activity of the parent compound. Such salts include: (1)acid addition salts, formed with inorganic acids such as hydrochloricacid, hydrobromic acid, sulfuric acid, nitric acid, phosphoric acid, andthe like; or formed with organic acids such as acetic acid, propionicacid, hexanoic acid, cyclopentanepropionic acid, glycolic acid, pyruvicacid, lactic acid, malonic acid, succinic acid, malic acid, maleic acid,fumaric acid, tartaric acid, citric acid, benzoic acid,3-(4-hydroxybenzoyl)benzoic acid, cinnamic acid, mandelic acid,methanesulfonic acid, ethanesulfonic acid, 1,2-ethanedisulfonic acid,2-hydroxyethanesulfonic acid, benzenesulfonic acid,4-chlorobenzenesulfonic acid, 2-naphthalenesulfonic acid,4-toluenesulfonic acid, camphorsulfonic acid, glucoheptonic acid,4,4′-methylenebis-(3-hydroxy-2-ene-1-carboxylic acid), 3-phenylpropionicacid, trimethylacetic acid, tertiary butylacetic acid, lauryl sulfuricacid, gluconic acid, glutamic acid, hydroxynaphthoic acid, salicylicacid, stearic acid, muconic acid, and the like; or (2) salts formed whenan acidic proton present in the parent compound either is replaced by ametal ion, e.g., an alkali metal ion, an alkaline earth ion, or analuminum ion; or coordinates with an organic base such as ethanolamine,diethanolamine, triethanolamine, tromethamine, N-methylglucamine, andthe like.

“Active agent” refers a chemical substance or compound that exerts apharmacological action and is capable of treating, preventing orameliorating one or more conditions/maladies (e.g., Alzheimer's disease)as described herein. Examples of active agents of interest include fattyacid β-hydroxyester compounds (e.g., fatty acid esters ofβ-hydroxybutyrate) and fatty acid esters of butanediol.

“Prodrug” refers to a derivative of an active agent that requires atransformation within the body to release the active agent. In certainembodiments, the transformation is an enzymatic transformation. Prodrugsare frequently, although not necessarily, pharmacologically inactiveuntil converted to the active agent.

DEFINITION OF SELECT CHEMICAL TERMINOLOGY

The nomenclature of certain compounds or substituents are used in theirconventional sense, such as described in chemistry literature includingbut not limited to Loudon, Organic Chemistry, Fourth Edition, New York:Oxford University Press, 2002, pp. 360-361, 1084-1085; Smith and March,March's Advanced Organic Chemistry: Reactions, Mechanisms, andStructure, Fifth Edition, Wiley-Interscience, 2001.

As used herein, the term “alkyl” by itself or as part of anothersubstituent refers to a saturated branched or straight-chain monovalenthydrocarbon radical derived by the removal of one hydrogen atom from asingle carbon atom of a parent alkane. Typical alkyl groups include, butare not limited to, methyl; ethyl, propyls such as propan-1-yl orpropan-2-yl; and butyls such as butan-1-yl, butan-2-yl,2-methyl-propan-1-yl or 2-methyl-propan-2-yl. In some embodiments, analkyl group comprises from 1 to 20 carbon atoms. In other embodiments,an alkyl group comprises from 1 to 10 carbon atoms. In still otherembodiments, an alkyl group comprises from 1 to 6 carbon atoms, such asfrom 1 to 4 carbon atoms.

“Alkanyl” by itself or as part of another substituent refers to asaturated branched, straight-chain or cyclic alkyl radical derived bythe removal of one hydrogen atom from a single carbon atom of an alkane.Typical alkanyl groups include, but are not limited to, methanyl;ethanyl; propanyls such as propan-1-yl, propan-2-yl (isopropyl),cyclopropan-1-yl, etc.; butanyls such as butan-1-yl, butan-2-yl(sec-butyl), 2-methyl-propan-1-yl (isobutyl), 2-methyl-propan-2-yl(t-butyl), cyclobutan-1-yl, etc.; and the like.

“Alkylene” refers to a branched or unbranched saturated hydrocarbonchain, usually having from 1 to 40 carbon atoms, more usually 1 to 10carbon atoms and even more usually 1 to 6 carbon atoms. This term isexemplified by groups such as methylene (—CH₂—), ethylene (—CH₂CH₂—),the propylene isomers (e.g., —CH₂CH₂CH₂— and —CH(CH₃)CH₂—) and the like.

“Alkenyl” by itself or as part of another substituent refers to anunsaturated branched, straight-chain or cyclic alkyl radical having atleast one carbon-carbon double bond derived by the removal of onehydrogen atom from a single carbon atom of an alkene. The group may bein either the cis or trans conformation about the double bond(s).Typical alkenyl groups include, but are not limited to, ethenyl;propenyls such as prop-1-en-1-yl, prop-1-en-2-yl, prop-2-en-1-yl(allyl), prop-2-en-2-yl, cycloprop-1-en-1-yl; cycloprop-2-en-1-yl;butenyls such as but-1-en-1-yl, but-1-en-2-yl, 2-methyl-prop-1-en-1-yl,but-2-en-1-yl, but-2-en-1-yl, but-2-en-2-yl, buta-1,3 -dien-1-yl,buta-1,3 -dien-2-yl, cyclobut-1-en-1-yl, cyclobut-1-en-3-yl,cyclobuta-1,3-dien-1-yl, etc.; and the like.

“Alkynyl” by itself or as part of another substituent refers to anunsaturated branched, straight-chain or cyclic alkyl radical having atleast one carbon-carbon triple bond derived by the removal of onehydrogen atom from a single carbon atom of an alkyne. Typical alkynylgroups include, but are not limited to, ethynyl; propynyls such asprop-1-yn-1-yl, prop-2-yn-1-yl, etc.; butynyls such as but-1-yn-1-yl,but-1-yn-3-yl, but-3-yn-1-yl, etc.; and the like.

“Acyl” by itself or as part of another substituent refers to a radical—C(O)R³⁰, where R³⁰ is hydrogen, alkyl, cycloalkyl, cycloheteroalkyl,aryl, arylalkyl, heteroalkyl, heteroaryl, heteroarylalkyl as definedherein and substituted versions thereof. Representative examplesinclude, but are not limited to formyl, acetyl, cyclohexylcarbonyl,cyclohexylmethylcarbonyl, benzoyl, benzyl carbonyl, piperonyl, succinyl,and malonyl, and the like.

The term “aminoacyl” refers to the group —C(O)NR²¹R²², wherein R²¹ andR²² independently are selected from the group consisting of hydrogen,alkyl, substituted alkyl, alkenyl, substituted alkenyl, alkynyl,substituted alkynyl, aryl, substituted aryl, cycloalkyl, substitutedcycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, substituted cycloalkenyl, heteroaryl,substituted heteroaryl, heterocyclic, and substituted heterocyclic andwhere R²¹ and R²² are optionally joined together with the nitrogen boundthereto to form a heterocyclic or substituted heterocyclic group, andwherein alkyl, substituted alkyl, alkenyl, substituted alkenyl, alkynyl,substituted alkynyl, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl,substituted cycloalkenyl, aryl, substituted aryl, heteroaryl,substituted heteroaryl, heterocyclic, and substituted heterocyclic areas defined herein.

“Alkoxy” by itself or as part of another substituent refers to a radical—OR³¹ where R³¹ represents an alkyl or cycloalkyl group as definedherein. Representative examples include, but are not limited to,methoxy, ethoxy, propoxy, butoxy, cyclohexyloxy and the like.

“Alkoxycarbonyl” by itself or as part of another substituent refers to aradical —C(O)OR³¹ where R³¹ represents an alkyl or cycloalkyl group asdefined herein. Representative examples include, but are not limited to,methoxycarbonyl, ethoxycarbonyl, propoxycarbonyl, butoxycarbonyl,cyclohexyloxycarbonyl and the like.

“Aryl” by itself or as part of another substituent refers to amonovalent aromatic hydrocarbon radical derived by the removal of onehydrogen atom from a single carbon atom of an aromatic ring system.Typical aryl groups include, but are not limited to, groups derived fromaceanthrylene, acenaphthylene, acephenanthrylene, anthracene, azulene,benzene, chrysene, coronene, fluoranthene, fluorene, hexacene,hexaphene, hexalene, as-indacene, s-indacene, indane, indene,naphthalene, octacene, octaphene, octalene, ovalene, penta-2,4-diene,pentacene, pentalene, pentaphene, perylene, phenalene, phenanthrene,picene, pleiadene, pyrene, pyranthrene, rubicene, triphenylene,trinaphthalene and the like. In certain embodiments, an aryl groupcomprises from 6 to 20 carbon atoms. In certain embodiments, an arylgroup comprises from 6 to 12 carbon atoms. Examples of an aryl group arephenyl and naphthyl.

“Arylalkyl” by itself or as part of another substituent refers to anacyclic alkyl radical in which one of the hydrogen atoms bonded to acarbon atom, typically a terminal or sp³ carbon atom, is replaced withan aryl group. Typical arylalkyl groups include, but are not limited to,benzyl, 2-phenylethan-1-yl, 2-phenylethen-1-yl, naphthylmethyl,2-naphthylethan-1-yl, 2-naphthylethen-1-yl, naphthobenzyl,2-naphthophenylethan-1-yl and the like. Where specific alkyl moietiesare intended, the nomenclature arylalkanyl, arylalkenyl and/orarylalkynyl is used. In certain embodiments, an arylalkyl group is(C₇-C₃₀) arylalkyl, e.g., the alkanyl, alkenyl or alkynyl moiety of thearylalkyl group is (C₁-C₁₀) and the aryl moiety is (C₆-C₂₀). In certainembodiments, an arylalkyl group is (C₇-C₂₀) arylalkyl, e.g., thealkanyl, alkenyl or alkynyl moiety of the arylalkyl group is (C₁-C₈) andthe aryl moiety is (C₆-C₁₂).

“Arylaryl” by itself or as part of another substituent, refers to amonovalent hydrocarbon group derived by the removal of one hydrogen atomfrom a single carbon atom of a ring system in which two or moreidentical or non-identical aromatic ring systems are joined directlytogether by a single bond, where the number of such direct ringjunctions is one less than the number of aromatic ring systems involved.Typical arylaryl groups include, but are not limited to, biphenyl,triphenyl, phenyl-napthyl, binaphthyl, biphenyl-napthyl, and the like.When the number of carbon atoms in an arylaryl group are specified, thenumbers refer to the carbon atoms comprising each aromatic ring. Forexample, (C₅-C₁₄) arylaryl is an arylaryl group in which each aromaticring comprises from 5 to 14 carbons, e.g., biphenyl, triphenyl,binaphthyl, phenylnapthyl, etc. In certain embodiments, each aromaticring system of an arylaryl group is independently a (C₅-C₁₄) aromatic.In certain embodiments, each aromatic ring system of an arylaryl groupis independently a (C₅-C₁₀) aromatic. In certain embodiments, eacharomatic ring system is identical, e.g., biphenyl, triphenyl,binaphthyl, trinaphthyl, etc.

“Cycloalkyl” by itself or as part of another substituent refers to asaturated or unsaturated cyclic alkyl radical. Where a specific level ofsaturation is intended, the nomenclature “cycloalkanyl” or“cycloalkenyl” is used. Typical cycloalkyl groups include, but are notlimited to, groups derived from cyclopropane, cyclobutane, cyclopentane,cyclohexane and the like. In certain embodiments, the cycloalkyl groupis (C₃-C₁₀) cycloalkyl. In certain embodiments, the cycloalkyl group is(C₃-C₇) cycloalkyl.

“Cycloheteroalkyl” or “heterocyclyl” by itself or as part of anothersubstituent, refers to a saturated or unsaturated cyclic alkyl radicalin which one or more carbon atoms (and any associated hydrogen atoms)are independently replaced with the same or different heteroatom.Typical heteroatoms to replace the carbon atom(s) include, but are notlimited to, N, P, O, S, Si, etc. Where a specific level of saturation isintended, the nomenclature “cycloheteroalkanyl” or “cycloheteroalkenyl”is used. Typical cycloheteroalkyl groups include, but are not limitedto, groups derived from epoxides, azirines, thiiranes, imidazolidine,morpholine, piperazine, piperidine, pyrazolidine, pyrrolidine,quinuclidine and the like.

“Heteroalkyl, Heteroalkanyl, Heteroalkenyl and Heteroalkynyl” bythemselves or as part of another substituent refer to alkyl, alkanyl,alkenyl and alkynyl groups, respectively, in which one or more of thecarbon atoms (and any associated hydrogen atoms) are independentlyreplaced with the same or different heteroatomic groups. Typicalheteroatomic groups which can be included in these groups include, butare not limited to, —O—, —S—, —S—S—, —O—S—, —NR³⁷R³⁸—, ═N—N═, —N═N—,—N═N—NR³⁹R⁴⁰, —PR⁴¹—, —P(O)₂—, —POR⁴²—, —O—P(O)₂—, —S—O—, —S—(O)—,—SO₂—, —SnR⁴³R⁴⁴— and the like, where R³⁷, R³⁸, R³⁹, R⁴⁰, R⁴¹, R⁴², R⁴³and R⁴⁴ are independently hydrogen, alkyl, substituted alkyl, aryl,substituted aryl, arylalkyl, substituted arylalkyl, cycloalkyl,substituted cycloalkyl, cycloheteroalkyl, substituted cycloheteroalkyl,heteroalkyl, substituted heteroalkyl, heteroaryl, substitutedheteroaryl, heteroarylalkyl or substituted heteroarylalkyl.

“Heteroaryl” by itself or as part of another substituent, refers to amonovalent heteroaromatic radical derived by the removal of one hydrogenatom from a single atom of a heteroaromatic ring system. Typicalheteroaryl groups include, but are not limited to, groups derived fromacridine, arsindole, carbazole, β-carboline, chromane, chromene,cinnoline, furan, imidazole, indazole, indole, indoline, indolizine,isobenzofuran, isochromene, isoindole, isoindoline, isoquinoline,isothiazole, isoxazole, naphthyridine, oxadiazole, oxazole, perimidine,phenanthridine, phenanthroline, phenazine, phthalazine, pteridine,purine, pyran, pyrazine, pyrazole, pyridazine, pyridine, pyrimidine,pyrrole, pyrrolizine, quinazoline, quinoline, quinolizine, quinoxaline,tetrazole, thiadiazole, thiazole, thiophene, triazole, xanthene,benzodioxole and the like. In certain embodiments, the heteroaryl groupis from 5-20 membered heteroaryl. In certain embodiments, the heteroarylgroup is from 5-10 membered heteroaryl. In certain embodiments,heteroaryl groups are those derived from thiophene, pyrrole,benzothiophene, benzofuran, indole, pyridine, quinoline, imidazole,oxazole and pyrazine.

“Heteroarylalkyl” by itself or as part of another substituent, refers toan acyclic alkyl radical in which one of the hydrogen atoms bonded to acarbon atom, typically a terminal or sp³ carbon atom, is replaced with aheteroaryl group. Where specific alkyl moieties are intended, thenomenclature heteroarylalkanyl, heteroarylalkenyl and/orheterorylalkynyl is used. In certain embodiments, the heteroarylalkylgroup is a 6-30 membered heteroarylalkyl, e.g., the alkanyl, alkenyl oralkynyl moiety of the heteroarylalkyl is 1-10 membered and theheteroaryl moiety is a 5-20-membered heteroaryl. In certain embodiments,the heteroarylalkyl group is 6-20 membered heteroarylalkyl, e.g., thealkanyl, alkenyl or alkynyl moiety of the heteroarylalkyl is 1-8membered and the heteroaryl moiety is a 5-12-membered heteroaryl.

“Aromatic Ring System” by itself or as part of another substituent,refers to an unsaturated cyclic or polycyclic ring system having aconjugated π electron system. Specifically included within thedefinition of “aromatic ring system” are fused ring systems in which oneor more of the rings are aromatic and one or more of the rings aresaturated or unsaturated, such as, for example, fluorene, indane,indene, phenalene, etc. Typical aromatic ring systems include, but arenot limited to, aceanthrylene, acenaphthylene, acephenanthrylene,anthracene, azulene, benzene, chrysene, coronene, fluoranthene,fluorene, hexacene, hexaphene, hexalene, as-indacene, s-indacene,indane, indene, naphthalene, octacene, octaphene, octalene, ovalene,penta-2,4-diene, pentacene, pentalene, pentaphene, perylene, phenalene,phenanthrene, picene, pleiadene, pyrene, pyranthrene, rubicene,triphenylene, trinaphthalene and the like.

“Heteroaromatic Ring System” by itself or as part of anothersubstituent, refers to an aromatic ring system in which one or morecarbon atoms (and any associated hydrogen atoms) are independentlyreplaced with the same or different heteroatom. Typical heteroatoms toreplace the carbon atoms include, but are not limited to, N, P, O, S,Si, etc. Specifically included within the definition of “heteroaromaticring systems” are fused ring systems in which one or more of the ringsare aromatic and one or more of the rings are saturated or unsaturated,such as, for example, arsindole, benzodioxan, benzofuran, chromane,chromene, indole, indoline, xanthene, etc. Typical heteroaromatic ringsystems include, but are not limited to, arsindole, carbazole,β-carboline, chromane, chromene, cinnoline, furan, imidazole, indazole,indole, indoline, indolizine, isobenzofuran, isochromene, isoindole,isoindoline, isoquinoline, isothiazole, isoxazole, naphthyridine,oxadiazole, oxazole, perimidine, phenanthridine, phenanthroline,phenazine, phthalazine, pteridine, purine, pyran, pyrazine, pyrazole,pyridazine, pyridine, pyrimidine, pyrrole, pyrrolizine, quinazoline,quinoline, quinolizine, quinoxaline, tetrazole, thiadiazole, thiazole,thiophene, triazole, xanthene and the like.

“Substituted” refers to a group in which one or more hydrogen atoms areindependently replaced with the same or different substituent(s).Typical substituents include, but are not limited to, alkylenedioxy(such as methylenedioxy), —M, —R⁶⁰, —O⁻, ═O, —OR⁶⁰, —SR⁶⁰, —S⁻, ═S,—NR⁶⁰R⁶¹, ═NR⁶⁰, —CF₃, —CN, —OCN, —SCN, —NO, —NO₂, ═N₂, —N₃, —S(O)₂O⁻,—S(O)₂OH, —S(O)₂R⁶⁰, —OS(O)₂O⁻, —OS(O)₂R⁶⁰, —P(O)(O⁻)₂, —P(O)(OR⁶⁰)(O⁻),—OP(O)(OR⁶⁰)(OR⁶¹), —C(O)R⁶⁰, —C(S)R⁶⁰, —C(O)OR⁶⁰, —C(O)NR⁶⁰R⁶¹,—C(O)O⁻, —C(S)OR⁶⁰, —NR⁶²C(O)NR⁶⁰R⁶¹, —NR⁶²C(S)NR⁶⁰R⁶¹,—NR⁶²C(NR⁶³)NR⁶⁰R⁶¹ and —C(NR⁶²)NR⁶⁰R⁶¹ where M is halogen; R⁶⁰, R⁶¹,R⁶² and R⁶³ are independently hydrogen, alkyl, substituted alkyl,alkoxy, substituted alkoxy, cycloalkyl, substituted cycloalkyl,cycloheteroalkyl, substituted cycloheteroalkyl, aryl, substituted aryl,heteroaryl or substituted heteroaryl, or optionally R⁶⁰ and R⁶¹ togetherwith the nitrogen atom to which they are bonded form a cycloheteroalkylor substituted cycloheteroalkyl ring; and R⁶⁴ and R⁶⁵ are independentlyhydrogen, alkyl, substituted alkyl, aryl, cycloalkyl, substitutedcycloalkyl, cycloheteroalkyl, substituted cycloheteroalkyl, aryl,substituted aryl, heteroaryl or substituted heteroaryl, or optionallyR⁶⁴ and R⁶⁵ together with the nitrogen atom to which they are bondedform a cycloheteroalkyl or substituted cycloheteroalkyl ring. In certainembodiments, substituents include —M, —R⁶⁰, ═O, —OR⁶⁰, —SR⁶⁰, —S⁻, ═S,—NR⁶⁰R⁶¹, ═NR⁶⁰, —CF₃, —CN, —OCN, —SCN, —NO, —NO₂, ═N₂, —N₃, —S(O)₂R⁶⁰,—OS(O)₂O⁻, —OS(O)₂R⁶⁰, —P(O)(O⁻)₂, —P(O)(OR⁶⁰)(O⁻), —OP(O)(OR⁶⁰)(OR⁶¹),—C(O)R⁶⁰, —C(S)R⁶⁰, —C(O)OR⁶⁰, —C(O)NR⁶⁰R⁶¹, —C(O)O⁻, —NR⁶²C(O)NR⁶⁰R⁶¹.In certain embodiments, substituents include —M, —R⁶⁰, ═O, —OR⁶⁰, —SR⁶⁰,—NR⁶⁰R⁶¹, —CF₃, —CN, —NO₂, —S(O)₂R⁶⁰, —P(O)(OR⁶⁰)(O),—OP(O)(OR⁶⁰)(OR⁶¹), —C(O)R⁶⁰, —C(O)OR⁶⁰, —C(O)_(NR) ⁶⁰R⁶¹, —C(O)O⁻. Incertain embodiments, substituents include —M, —R⁶⁰, ═O, —OR⁶⁰, —SR⁶⁰,—NR⁶⁰R⁶¹, —CF₃, —CN, —NO₂, —S(O)₂R⁶⁰, —OP(O)(OR⁶⁰)(OR⁶¹), —C(O)R⁶⁰,—C(O)OR⁶⁰, —C(O)O⁻, where R⁶⁰, R⁶¹ and R⁶² are as defined above. Forexample, a substituted group may bear a methylenedioxy substituent orone, two, or three substituents selected from a halogen atom, a(1-4C)alkyl group and a (1-4C)alkoxy group.

The compounds described herein can contain one or more chiral centersand/or double bonds and therefore, can exist as stereoisomers, such asdouble-bond isomers (i.e., geometric isomers), enantiomers ordiastereomers. Accordingly, all possible enantiomers and stereoisomersof the compounds including the stereoisomerically pure form (e.g.,geometrically pure, enantiomerically pure or diastereomerically pure)and enantiomeric and stereoisomeric mixtures are included in thedescription of the compounds herein. Enantiomeric and stereoisomericmixtures can be resolved into their component enantiomers orstereoisomers using separation techniques or chiral synthesis techniqueswell known to the skilled artisan. The compounds can also exist inseveral tautomeric forms including the enol form, the keto form andmixtures thereof. Accordingly, the chemical structures depicted hereinencompass all possible tautomeric forms of the illustrated compounds.The compounds described also include isotopically labeled compoundswhere one or more atoms have an atomic mass different from the atomicmass conventionally found in nature. Examples of isotopes that can beincorporated into the compounds disclosed herein include, but are notlimited to, ²H, ³H, ¹¹C, ¹³C, ¹⁴C, ¹⁵N, ¹⁸O, ¹⁷O, etc. Compounds canexist in unsolvated forms as well as solvated forms, including hydratedforms. In general, compounds can be hydrated or solvated. Certaincompounds can exist in multiple crystalline or amorphous forms. Ingeneral, all physical forms are equivalent for the uses contemplatedherein and are intended to be within the scope of the presentdisclosure.

Before the present invention is further described, it is to beunderstood that this invention is not limited to particular embodimentsdescribed, as such may, of course, vary. It is also to be understoodthat the terminology used herein is for the purpose of describingparticular embodiments only, and is not intended to be limiting, sincethe scope of the present invention will be limited only by the appendedclaims.

Where a range of values is provided, it is understood that eachintervening value, to the tenth of the unit of the lower limit unlessthe context clearly dictates otherwise, between the upper and lowerlimit of that range and any other stated or intervening value in thatstated range, is encompassed within the invention. The upper and lowerlimits of these smaller ranges may independently be included in thesmaller ranges, and are also encompassed within the invention, subjectto any specifically excluded limit in the stated range. Where the statedrange includes one or both of the limits, ranges excluding either orboth of those included limits are also included in the invention.

Unless defined otherwise, all technical and scientific terms used hereinhave the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill inthe art to which this invention belongs. Although any methods andmaterials similar or equivalent to those described herein can also beused in the practice or testing of the present invention, the preferredmethods and materials are now described. All publications mentionedherein are incorporated herein by reference to disclose and describe themethods and/or materials in connection with which the publications arecited.

It must be noted that as used herein and in the appended claims, thesingular forms “a,” “an,” and “the” include plural referents unless thecontext clearly dictates otherwise. As such, this statement is intendedto serve as antecedent basis for use of such exclusive terminology as“solely,” “only” and the like in connection with the recitation of claimelements, or use of a “negative” limitation.

It is appreciated that certain features of the invention, which are, forclarity, described in the context of separate embodiments, may also beprovided in combination in a single embodiment. Conversely, variousfeatures of the invention, which are, for brevity, described in thecontext of a single embodiment, may also be provided separately or inany suitable sub-combination. All combinations of the embodimentspertaining to the invention are specifically embraced by the presentinvention and are disclosed herein just as if each and every combinationwas individually and explicitly disclosed. In addition, allsub-combinations of the various embodiments and elements thereof arealso specifically embraced by the present invention and are disclosedherein just as if each and every such sub-combination was individuallyand explicitly disclosed herein.

The publications discussed herein are provided solely for theirdisclosure prior to the filing date of the present application. Nothingherein is to be construed as an admission that the present invention isnot entitled to antedate such publication. Further, the dates ofpublication provided may be different from the actual publication dateswhich may need to be independently confirmed.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

The present disclosure provides fatty acid β-hydroxyester compounds(e.g., fatty acid esters of β-hydroxybutyrate), fatty acid esters ofbutanediol, and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof. Also providedare pharmaceutical compositions having one or more fatty acidβ-hydroxyester compounds and/or one or more fatty acid esters ofbutanediol.

The present disclosure further provides methods for treating a subjectby administering one or more fatty acid β-hydroxyester compounds and/orone or more esters of butanediol to the subject. In some embodiments,methods include treating Alzheimer's disease in a subject diagnosed ashaving Alzheimer's disease by administering to the subject one or morefatty acid β-hydroxyester compounds described herein and/or one or moreesters of butanediol described herein. In some instances, the amount ofthe one or more of the fatty acid β-hydroxyester compounds and/or theone or more esters of butanediol administered to the subject issufficient to reduce epileptiform activity in the subject. In certaininstances, the amount of the one or more fatty acid β-hydroxyestercompounds and/or the one or more esters of butanediol administered tothe subject is sufficient to increase cognition in the subject.

The present disclosure further provides methods for treating one or moreof epilepsy, Parkinson's disease, heart failure, traumatic brain injury,stroke, hemorrhagic shock, acute lung injury after fluid resuscitation,acute kidney injury, myocardial infarction, myocardial ischemia,diabetes, glioblastoma multiforme, diabetic neuropathy, prostate cancer,amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Huntington's disease, cutaneous T celllymphoma, multiple myeloma, peripheral T cell lymphoma, HIV,Niemann-Pick Type C disease, age-related macular degeneration, gout,atherosclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis and multiple sclerosis byadministering one or more of the fatty acid β-hydroxyester compoundsdescribed herein and/or one or more of the esters of butanedioldescribed herein to the subject.

The present disclosure also provides compounds, the administration ofwhich provide for increased ketone body concentration in a subject. Thefatty acid β-hydroxyester compounds (e.g., fatty acid esters ofβ-hydroxybutyrate) and fatty acid esters of butanediol as describedherein release, via ester hydrolysis, β-hydroxybutyrate or butanediolwhich increase ketone body concentration in the subject and asupplemental source of medium chain fatty acids that provide forsustained ketone body production by the subject. In some embodiments,the present disclosure provides fatty acid esters of β-hydroxybutyratewhich hydrolyze, after administration, to β-hydroxybutyrate and mediumchain fatty acids. In these embodiments, the release ofβ-hydroxybutyrate provides for an increase in ketone body concentrationin the subject and the hydrolyzed medium chain fatty acids provide asubstrate for sustained physiological production of ketone bodies. Inother embodiments, the present disclosure provides fatty acid esters ofbutanediol which hydrolyze after administration to butanediol and mediumchain fatty acids. In these embodiments, the release of butanediolprovides for an increase in ketone body production in the subject andthe hydrolyzed medium chain fatty acids provide an additional substratefor sustained physiological production of ketone bodies.

Fatty Acid β-Hydroxyester Compounds and Fatty Acid Esters of Butanediol

Fatty acid β-hydroxyester compounds and fatty acid esters of butanediolsuitable for practicing the subject methods (described in greater detailbelow) include a compound of Formulae I and II, as described below.

Compounds of Formulae I and II

The compositions of the present disclosure include compounds of formulaeI and II, shown below. Pharmaceutical compositions and methods of thepresent disclosure also contemplate compounds of formulae I and II.

In one of its composition aspects, the present embodiments provide acompound of formula I:

wherein

-   R₁ is selected from hydrogen, alkyl and substituted alkyl; and-   R₂ and R₃ are independently unsubstituted or substituted alkyl;    and salts, solvates or hydrates thereof.

In formula I, R₁ is selected from hydrogen, alkyl and substituted alkyl.In certain instances, R₁ is hydrogen. In other instances, R¹ is alkyl.In other instances, R₁ is substituted alkyl. In certain instances, R₁ isalkyl, such as C₁-C₆ alkyl, including C₁-C₃ alkyl. In certain instances,R₁ is methyl, ethyl, n-propyl, isopropyl, n-butyl, iso-butyl or t-butyl.In certain instances, R₁ is methyl.

In formula I, R₂ is selected from alkyl and substituted alkyl. Incertain instances, R₂ is alkyl. In other instances, R₂ is substitutedalkyl. In certain instances, R₂ is alkyl, such as C₄-C₃₀ alkyl,including C₆-C₈ alkyl. In certain instances, R₂ is hexyl or octyl (C₆ orC₈). In certain instances, R₂ is hexyl (C₆). In certain instances, R₂ isoctyl (C₈).

In formula I, R₃ is selected from alkyl and substituted alkyl. Incertain instances, R₃ is alkyl. In other instances, R₃ is substitutedalkyl. In certain instances, R₃ is alkyl, such as C₄-C₃₀ alkyl,including C₆-C₈ alkyl. In certain instances, R₃ is hexyl or octyl (C₆ orC₈). In certain instances, R₃ is hexyl (C₆). In certain instances, R₃ isoctyl (C₈).

In formula I according to certain embodiments, R₁ is methyl and R₂ andR₃ are independently hexyl. In certain instances, R₁ is methyl and R₂and R₃ are independently octyl. In other instances, R₁ is methyl and R₂is hexyl and R₃ octyl. In other instances R₁ is methyl and R₂ is octyland R₃ is hexyl.

In certain embodiments, fatty acid esters of 1,3-butanediol of interestare enantiomerically pure (<95% ee). 1,3-butanediol is metabolized toBHB by alcohol dehydrogenase and aldehyde dehydrogenase, both of whichact on the 1′ hydroxyl group and are not specific to the chirality ofthe 3′ group. Therefore, R-1,3-butanediol is metabolized to R-BHB, andS-1,3-butanediol is metabolized to S-BHB by these enzymes.

The compounds described in this application include 1,3-butanediolester-linked to one or more fatty acids or BHB ester-linked to one ormore fatty acids. The compounds are chiral, because the 1,3-butanedioland BHB moieties are chiral. However, it is important to note that thefatty acid moiety can only be metabolized to R-BHB in the body, due tothe stereospecificity of beta-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase describedabove. Therefore, a compound that includes S-BHB linked to a fatty acidwill ultimately generate one unit of S-BHB but also several units ofR-BHB. In certain embodiments, none of the compounds described hereingenerate exclusively S-BHB when fully metabolized in the body.

In certain embodiments, the differences in metabolism between R-BHB andS-BHB are important for their relative efficacy in treating humandiseases. As described above, only R-BHB can be readily metabolized toacetyl-CoA and ATP, fulfilling the “energy currency” function of BHB. Ifefficacy in treating a disease is based upon this energy function ofBHB, then R-BHB will be substantially more effective than S-BHB.However, in some instances the efficacy of BHB in some human diseasesmay rely upon the signaling functions of BHB, rather than the energyfunction. Several of the signaling functions of interest may include,but are not limited to, HCAR2 inhibition, inflammasome inhibition andinhibition of deacetylase enzymes. In these embodiments, where S-BHB hasa similar molecular effect as R-BHB, then the slower metabolism of S-BHBmay provide a longer duration of action in the body.

In another composition aspect, the present embodiments provide acompound of formula Ia:

wherein

-   R¹ is selected from hydrogen, alkyl and substituted alkyl; and-   R₂ and R₃ are independently unsubstituted or substituted alkyl;    and salts, solvates or hydrates thereof.

In formula Ia, R₁ is selected from hydrogen, alkyl and substitutedalkyl. In certain instances, R₁ is hydrogen. In other instances, R¹ isalkyl. In other instances, R₁ is substituted alkyl. In certaininstances, R₁ is alkyl, such as C₁-C₆ alkyl, including C₁-C₃ alkyl. Incertain instances, R₁ is methyl, ethyl, n-propyl, isopropyl, n-butyl,iso-butyl or t-butyl. In certain instances, R₁ is methyl.

In formula Ia, R₂ is selected from alkyl and substituted alkyl. Incertain instances, R₂ is alkyl. In other instances, R₂ is substitutedalkyl. In certain instances, R₂ is alkyl, such as C₄-C₃₀ alkyl,including C₆-C₈ alkyl. In certain instances, R₂ is hexyl or octyl (C₆ orC₈). In certain instances, R₂ is hexyl (C₆). In certain instances, R₂ isoctyl (C₈).

In formula Ia, R₃ is selected from alkyl and substituted alkyl. Incertain instances, R₃ is alkyl. In other instances, R₃ is substitutedalkyl. In certain instances, R₃ is alkyl, such as C₄-C₃₀ alkyl,including C₆-C₈ alkyl. In certain instances, R₃ is hexyl or octyl (C₆ orC₈). In certain instances, R₃ is hexyl (C₆). In certain instances, R₃ isoctyl (C₈).

In formula Ia according to certain embodiments, R₁ is methyl and R₂ andR₃ are independently hexyl. In certain instances, R₁ is methyl and R₂and R₃ are independently octyl. In other instances, R₁ is methyl and R₂is hexyl and R₃ octyl. In other instances R₁ is methyl and R₂ is octyland R₃ is hexyl.

In certain embodiments, fatty acid esters of butanediol of interestinclude a compound of formula BDE-1a-BDE-1b:

and salts, solvates or hydrates thereof.

In another composition aspect, the present embodiments provide acompound of formula Ib:

wherein

-   R¹ is selected from hydrogen, alkyl and substituted alkyl; and-   R₂ and R₃ are independently unsubstituted or substituted alkyl.    and salts, solvates or hydrates thereof.

In formula Ib, R₁ is selected from hydrogen, alkyl and substitutedalkyl. In certain instances, R₁ is hydrogen. In other instances, R¹ isalkyl. In other instances, R₁ is substituted alkyl. In certaininstances, R₁ is alkyl, such as C₁-C₆ alkyl, including C₁-C₃ alkyl. Incertain instances, R₁ is methyl, ethyl, n-propyl, isopropyl, n-butyl,iso-butyl or t-butyl. In certain instances, R₁ is methyl.

In formula Ib, R₂ is selected from alkyl and substituted alkyl. Incertain instances, R₂ is alkyl. In other instances, R₂ is substitutedalkyl. In certain instances, R₂ is alkyl, such as C₄-C₃₀ alkyl,including C₆-C₈ alkyl. In certain instances, R₂ is hexyl or octyl (C₆ orC₈). In certain instances, R₂ is hexyl (C₆). In certain instances, R₂ isoctyl (C₈).

In formula Ib, R₃ is selected from alkyl and substituted alkyl. Incertain instances, R₃ is alkyl. In other instances, R₃ is substitutedalkyl. In certain instances, R₃ is alkyl, such as C₄-C₃₀ alkyl,including C₆-C₈ alkyl. In certain instances, R₃ is hexyl or octyl (C₆ orC₈). In certain instances, R₃ is hexyl (C₆). In certain instances, R₃ isoctyl (C₈).

In formula Ib according to certain embodiments, R₁ is methyl and R₂ andR₃ are independently hexyl. In certain instances, R₁ is methyl and R₂and R₃ are independently octyl. In other instances, R₁ is methyl and R₂is hexyl and R₃ octyl. In other instances R₁ is methyl and R₂ is octyland R₃ is hexyl.

In another composition aspect, the present embodiments provide acompound of formula II:

wherein

-   R₄ is selected from hydrogen, alkyl and substituted alkyl; and-   R₅ and R₆ are independently unsubstituted or substituted alkyl;    and salts, solvates or hydrates thereof.

In formula II, R₄ is selected from hydrogen, alkyl and substitutedalkyl. In certain instances, R₄ is hydrogen. In other instances, R₄ isalkyl. In other instances, R₄ is substituted alkyl. In certaininstances, R₄ is alkyl, such as C₁-C₆ alkyl, including C₁-C₃ alkyl. Incertain instances, R₄ is methyl, ethyl, n-propyl, isopropyl, n-butyl,iso-butyl or t-butyl. In certain instances, R₄ is methyl.

In formula II, R₅ is selected from alkyl and substituted alkyl. Incertain instances, R₅ is alkyl. In other instances, R₅ is substitutedalkyl. In certain instances, R₅ is alkyl, such as C₄-C₃₀ alkyl,including C₆-C₈ alkyl. In certain instances, R₅ is hexyl or octyl (C₆ orC₈). In certain instances, R₅ is hexyl (C₆). In certain instances, R₅ isoctyl (C₈).

In formula II, R₆ is selected from alkyl and substituted alkyl. Incertain instances, R₆ is alkyl. In other instances, R₆ is substitutedalkyl. In certain instances, R₆ is alkyl, such as C₄-C₃₀ alkyl,including C₆-C₈ alkyl. In certain instances, R³ is hexyl or octyl (C₆ orC₈). In certain instances, R₆ is hexyl (C₆). In certain instances, R³ isoctyl (C₈).

In formula II according to certain embodiments, R₄ is methyl and R₅ andR₆ are independently hexyl. In certain instances, R₄ is methyl and R₅and R₆ are independently octyl. In other instances, R₄ is methyl and R₅is hexyl and R₆ octyl. In other instances R₄ is methyl and R₅ is octyland R₆ is hexyl.

In certain embodiments, fatty acid β-hydroxyester compounds of interestare enantiomerically pure (<95% ee). R-BHB is the normal product ofhuman metabolism. This chiral specificity is introduced by the enzymethat catalyzes the final step in BHB synthesis, beta-hydroxybutyratedehydrogenase. This enzyme reduces the 3′ carbonyl group of acetoacetateto the 3′ hydroxyl group of BHB. The same enzyme is also required forutilization of BHB, by catalyzing the same reaction in reverse. As aresult of the chiral specificity of β-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase,only R-BHB is produced by normal metabolism, and only R-BHB can bereadily broken down into acetyl-CoA and ATP. Fasting, exercise, caloricrestriction, ketogenic diet, and any other state that result inendogenous production of BHB will produce only R-BHB.

S-BHB itself is not a normal product of human metabolism. However,S-BHB-CoA is a transient intermediate in the final round ofbeta-oxidation of fatty acids. Under normal circumstances it should notpersist long enough to leave the mitochondrion or circulate in theblood. Experiments involving infusions of labeled R-BHB, S-BHB, ormixtures into rats or pigs found that S-BHB is mostly converted toR-BHB; the molecular pathway for this is not known, but may be throughconversion of S-BHB to acetyl-CoA, and then production of R-BHB fromthat acetyl-CoA. At least some of the S-BHB is eventually converted toCO₂, presumably after being metabolized to acetyl-CoA that is thenmetabolized in the TCA cycle. S-BHB may be metabolized much more slowlythan R-BHB, so that infusion of the same amount of S-BHB may result inhigher blood levels of S-BHB for a longer time, than a similar infusionof R-BHB would generate blood levels of R-BHB.

In another composition aspect, the present embodiments provide acompound of formula IIa:

wherein

-   R₄ is selected from hydrogen, alkyl and substituted alkyl; and-   R₅ and R₆ are independently unsubstituted or substituted alkyl;    and salts, solvates or hydrates thereof.

In formula IIa, R₄ is selected from hydrogen, alkyl and substitutedalkyl. In certain instances, R₄ is hydrogen. In other instances, R₄ isalkyl. In other instances, R₄ is substituted alkyl. In certaininstances, R₄ is alkyl, such as C₁-C₆ alkyl, including C₁-C₃ alkyl. Incertain instances, R₄ is methyl, ethyl, n-propyl, isopropyl, n-butyl,iso-butyl or t-butyl. In certain instances, R₄ is methyl.

In formula IIa, R₅ is selected from alkyl and substituted alkyl. Incertain instances, R₅ is alkyl. In other instances, R₅ is substitutedalkyl. In certain instances, R₅ is alkyl, such as C₄-C₃₀ alkyl,including C₆-C₈ alkyl. In certain instances, R₅ is hexyl or octyl (C₆ orC₈). In certain instances, R₅ is hexyl (C₆). In certain instances, R₅ isoctyl (C₈).

In formula IIa, R₆ is selected from alkyl and substituted alkyl. Incertain instances, R₆ is alkyl. In other instances, R₆ is substitutedalkyl. In certain instances, R₆ is alkyl, such as C₄-C₃₀ alkyl,including C₆-C₈ alkyl. In certain instances, R³ is hexyl or octyl (C₆ orC₈). In certain instances, R₆ is hexyl (C₆). In certain instances, R³ isoctyl (C₈).

In formula IIa according to certain embodiments, R₄ is methyl and R₅ andR₆ are independently hexyl. In certain instances, R₄ is methyl and R₅and R₆ are independently octyl. In other instances, R₄ is methyl and R₅is hexyl and R₆ octyl. In other instances R₄ is methyl and R₅ is octyland R₆ is hexyl.

In certain embodiments, fatty acid β-hydroxyester compounds of interestinclude a β-hydroxybutyrate compound of formula BHE-2a-BHE-2d:

and salts, solvates or hydrates thereof.

In another composition aspect, the present embodiments provide acompound of formula IIa:

wherein

-   R₄ is selected from hydrogen, alkyl and substituted alkyl; and-   R₅ and R₆ are independently unsubstituted or substituted alkyl;    and salts, solvates or hydrates thereof.

In formula IIb, R₄ is selected from hydrogen, alkyl and substitutedalkyl. In certain instances, R₄ is hydrogen. In other instances, R₄ isalkyl. In other instances, R₄ is substituted alkyl. In certaininstances, R₄ is alkyl, such as C₁-C₆ alkyl, including C₁-C₃ alkyl. Incertain instances, R₄ is methyl, ethyl, n-propyl, isopropyl, n-butyl,iso-butyl or t-butyl. In certain instances, R₄ is methyl.

In formula IIb, R₅ is selected from alkyl and substituted alkyl. Incertain instances, R₅ is alkyl. In other instances, R₅ is substitutedalkyl. In certain instances, R₅ is alkyl, such as C₄-C₃₀ alkyl,including C₆-C₈ alkyl. In certain instances, R₅ is hexyl or octyl (C₆ orC₈). In certain instances, R₅ is hexyl (C₆). In certain instances, R₅ isoctyl (C₈).

In formula IIb, R₆ is selected from alkyl and substituted alkyl. Incertain instances, R₆ is alkyl. In other instances, R₆ is substitutedalkyl. In certain instances, R₆ is alkyl, such as C₄-C₃₀ alkyl,including C₆-C₈ alkyl. In certain instances, R³ is hexyl or octyl (C₆ orC₈). In certain instances, R₆ is hexyl (C₆). In certain instances, R³ isoctyl (C₈).

In formula IIb according to certain embodiments, R₄ is methyl and R₅ andR₆ are independently hexyl. In certain instances, R₄ is methyl and R₅and R₆ are independently octyl. In other instances, R₄ is methyl and R₅is hexyl and R₆ octyl. In other instances R₄ is methyl and R₅ is octyland R₆ is hexyl.

Formulations, Dosages, and Routes of Administration

Pharmaceutically acceptable carriers preferred for use with activeagents (and optionally one or more additional therapeutic agent) mayinclude sterile aqueous or non-aqueous solutions, suspensions, andemulsions. Examples of non-aqueous solvents are propylene glycol,polyethylene glycol, vegetable oils such as olive oil, and injectableorganic esters such as ethyl oleate. Aqueous carriers include water,alcoholic/aqueous solutions, emulsions or suspensions, andmicroparticles, including saline and buffered media. Parenteral vehiclesinclude sodium chloride solution, Ringer's dextrose, dextrose and sodiumchloride, lactated Ringer's or fixed oils. Intravenous vehicles includefluid and nutrient replenishers, electrolyte replenishers (such as thosebased on Ringer's dextrose), and the like. A composition comprising anactive agent (and optionally one or more additional therapeutic agent)may also be lyophilized using means well known in the art, forsubsequent reconstitution and use according to the invention.

Formulations

The subject fatty acid β-hydroxyester compounds and/or the subject fattyacid esters of butanediol may be administered to an individual in needthereof in a formulation with a pharmaceutically acceptableexcipient(s). A wide variety of pharmaceutically acceptable excipientsis known in the art and need not be discussed in detail herein.Pharmaceutically acceptable excipients have been amply described in avariety of publications, including, for example, A. Gennaro (2000)“Remington: The Science and Practice of Pharmacy”, 20th edition,Lippincott, Williams, & Wilkins; Pharmaceutical Dosage Forms and DrugDelivery Systems (1999) H. C. Ansel et al., eds 7^(th) ed., Lippincott,Williams, & Wilkins; and Handbook of Pharmaceutical Excipients (2000) A.H. Kibbe et al., eds., 3^(rd) ed. Amer. Pharmaceutical Assoc. For thepurposes of the following description of formulations, “active agent”includes an active agent as described above, e.g., a fatty acidβ-hydroxyester compound or a fatty acid ester of butanediol as describedherein, and optionally one or more additional therapeutic agents.

In a subject method, an active agent may be administered to the hostusing any convenient protocol. Thus, an active agent can be incorporatedinto a variety of formulations for therapeutic administration. Forexample, an active agent can be formulated into pharmaceuticalcompositions by combination with appropriate, pharmaceuticallyacceptable carriers or diluents, and may be formulated into preparationsin solid, semi-solid, liquid or gaseous forms, such as tablets,capsules, powders, granules, ointments, solutions, suppositories,injections, inhalants and aerosols. In an exemplary embodiment, anactive agent is formulated as a gel, as a solution, or in some otherform suitable for intravaginal administration. In a further exemplaryembodiment, an active agent is formulated as a gel, as a solution, or insome other form suitable for rectal (e.g., intrarectal) administration.

In pharmaceutical dosage forms, an active agent may be administered inthe form of its pharmaceutically acceptable salts, or it may also beused alone or in appropriate association, as well as in combination,with other pharmaceutically active compounds. The following methods andexcipients are merely exemplary and are in no way limiting.

In some embodiments, an active is formulated in an aqueous buffer.Suitable aqueous buffers include, but are not limited to, acetate,succinate, citrate, and phosphate buffers varying in strengths fromabout 5 mM to about 100 mM. In some embodiments, the aqueous bufferincludes reagents that provide for an isotonic solution. Such reagentsinclude, but are not limited to, sodium chloride; and sugars e.g.,mannitol, dextrose, sucrose, and the like. In some embodiments, theaqueous buffer further includes a non-ionic surfactant such aspolysorbate 20 or 80. Optionally the formulations may further include apreservative. Suitable preservatives include, but are not limited to, abenzyl alcohol, phenol, chlorobutanol, benzalkonium chloride, and thelike. In many cases, the formulation is stored at about 4° C.Formulations may also be lyophilized, in which case they generallyinclude cryoprotectants such as sucrose, trehalose, lactose, maltose,mannitol, and the like. Lyophilized formulations can be stored overextended periods of time, even at ambient temperatures.

For oral preparations, an active agent can be used alone or incombination with appropriate additives to make tablets, powders,granules or capsules, for example, with conventional additives, such aslactose, mannitol, corn starch or potato starch; with binders, such ascrystalline cellulose, cellulose derivatives, acacia, corn starch orgelatins; with disintegrators, such as corn starch, potato starch orsodium carboxymethylcellulose; with lubricants, such as talc ormagnesium stearate; and if desired, with diluents, buffering agents,moistening agents, preservatives and flavoring agents.

An active agent as described herein may be provided and/or administeredas a food supplement, e.g., in combination with one or more componentsof a ketogenic diet. Exemplary ketogenic diets and components thereofare described for example in U.S. Pat. No. 6,207,856, the disclosure ofwhich is incorporated by reference herein.

An active agent can be formulated into preparations for injection bydissolving, suspending or emulsifying them in an aqueous or nonaqueoussolvent, such as vegetable or other similar oils, synthetic aliphaticacid glycerides, esters of higher aliphatic acids or propylene glycol;and if desired, with conventional additives such as solubilizers,isotonic agents, suspending agents, emulsifying agents, stabilizers andpreservatives.

An active agent can be utilized in aerosol formulation to beadministered via inhalation. An active agent can be formulated intopressurized acceptable propellants such as dichlorodifluoromethane,propane, nitrogen and the like.

Furthermore, an active agent can be made into suppositories by mixingwith a variety of bases such as emulsifying bases or water-solublebases. An active agent can be administered rectally via a suppository.The suppository can include vehicles such as cocoa butter, carbowaxesand polyethylene glycols, which melt at body temperature, yet aresolidified at room temperature.

Unit dosage forms for oral or rectal administration such as syrups,elixirs, and suspensions may be provided wherein each dosage unit, forexample, teaspoonful, tablespoonful, tablet or suppository, contains apredetermined amount of the composition containing one or more activeagents. Similarly, unit dosage forms for injection or intravenousadministration may comprise the active agent(s) in a composition as asolution in sterile water, normal saline or another pharmaceuticallyacceptable carrier.

Unit dosage forms for intravaginal or intrarectal administration such assyrups, elixirs, gels, and suspensions may be provided wherein eachdosage unit, for example, teaspoonful, tablespoonful, tablet, unit gelvolume, or suppository, contains a predetermined amount of thecomposition containing one or more active agents.

The term “unit dosage form,” as used herein, refers to physicallydiscrete units suitable as unitary dosages for human and animalsubjects, each unit containing a predetermined quantity of an activeagent, calculated in an amount sufficient to produce the desired effectin association with a pharmaceutically acceptable diluent, carrier orvehicle. The specifications for a given active agent will depend in parton the particular compound employed and the effect to be achieved, andthe pharmacodynamics associated with each compound in the host.

Other modes of administration will also find use with the subjectinvention. For instance, an active agent can be formulated insuppositories and, in some cases, aerosol and intranasal compositions.For suppositories, the vehicle composition will include traditionalbinders and carriers such as, polyalkylene glycols, or triglycerides.Such suppositories may be formed from mixtures containing the activeingredient in the range of about 0.5% to about 25% (w/w), e.g. about 5%to about 20%, including from 5% to 15%.

An active agent can be administered as an injectable. Typically,injectable compositions are prepared as liquid solutions or suspensions;solid forms suitable for solution in, or suspension in, liquid vehiclesprior to injection may also be prepared. The preparation may also beemulsified or the active ingredient encapsulated in liposome vehicles.

An active agent will in some embodiments be formulated for vaginaldelivery. A subject formulation for intravaginal administrationcomprises an active agent formulated as an intravaginal bioadhesivetablet, intravaginal bioadhesive microparticle, intravaginal cream,intravaginal lotion, intravaginal foam, intravaginal ointment,intravaginal paste, intravaginal solution, or intravaginal gel.

An active agent will in some embodiments be formulated for rectaldelivery.

A subject formulation for intrarectal administration comprises an activeagent formulated as an intrarectal bioadhesive tablet, intrarectalbioadhesive microparticle, intrarectal cream, intrarectal lotion,intrarectal foam, intrarectal ointment, intrarectal paste, intrarectalsolution, or intrarectal gel.

A subject formulation comprising an active agent includes one or more ofan excipient (e.g., sucrose, starch, mannitol, sorbitol, lactose,glucose, cellulose, talc, calcium phosphate or calcium carbonate), abinder (e.g., cellulose, methylcellulose, hydroxymethylcellulose,polypropylpyrrolidone, polyvinylpyrrolidone, gelatin, gum arabic,poly(ethylene glycol), sucrose or starch), a disintegrator (e.g.,starch, carboxymethylcellulose, hydroxypropyl starch, low substitutedhydroxypropylcellulose, sodium bicarbonate, calcium phosphate or calciumcitrate), a lubricant (e.g., magnesium stearate, light anhydrous silicicacid, talc or sodium lauryl sulfate), a flavoring agent (e.g., citricacid, menthol, glycine or orange powder), a preservative (e.g., sodiumbenzoate, sodium bisulfite, methylparaben or propylparaben), astabilizer (e.g., citric acid, sodium citrate or acetic acid), asuspending agent (e.g., methylcellulose, polyvinylpyrrolidone oraluminum stearate), a dispersing agent (e.g.,hydroxypropylmethylcellulose), a diluent (e.g., water), and base wax(e.g., cocoa butter, white petrolatum or polyethylene glycol).

Tablets comprising an active agent may be coated with a suitablefilm-forming agent, e.g., hydroxypropylmethyl cellulose, hydroxypropylcellulose or ethyl cellulose, to which a suitable excipient mayoptionally be added, e.g., a softener such as glycerol, propyleneglycol, diethylphthalate, or glycerol triacetate; a filler such assucrose, sorbitol, xylitol, glucose, or lactose; a colorant such astitanium hydroxide; and the like.

Suitable excipient vehicles are, for example, water, saline, dextrose,glycerol, ethanol, or the like, and combinations thereof. In addition,if desired, the vehicle may contain minor amounts of auxiliarysubstances such as wetting or emulsifying agents or pH buffering agents.Actual methods of preparing such dosage forms are known, or will beapparent, to those skilled in the art. See, e.g., Remington'sPharmaceutical Sciences, Mack Publishing Company, Easton, Pa., 17thedition, 1985. The composition or formulation to be administered will,in any event, contain a quantity of the agent adequate to achieve thedesired state in the subject being treated.

The pharmaceutically acceptable excipients, such as vehicles, adjuvants,carriers or diluents, are readily available to the public. Moreover,pharmaceutically acceptable auxiliary substances, such as pH adjustingand buffering agents, tonicity adjusting agents, stabilizers, wettingagents and the like, are readily available to the public.

Dosages

Although the dosage used will vary depending on the clinical goals to beachieved, a suitable dosage range of an active agent is one whichprovides up to about 1 g to about 100 g, e.g., from about 1 g to about90 g, from about 2.5 g to about 80 g, from about 5.0 g to about 70 mg,from about 7.5 g to about 60 g, from about 10 g to about 50 g, fromabout 12.5 g to about 40 g, from about 15 g to about 30 g, or from 5 gto 20 g of an active agent can be administered in a single dose.

Those of skill will readily appreciate that dose levels can vary as afunction of the specific compound, the severity of the symptoms and thesusceptibility of the subject to side effects. Preferred dosages for agiven compound are readily determinable by those of skill in the art bya variety of means.

In some embodiments, a single dose of an active agent is administered.In other embodiments, multiple doses of an active agent areadministered. Where multiple doses are administered over a period oftime, an active agent is administered twice daily (qid), daily (qd),every other day (qod), every third day, three times per week (tiw), ortwice per week (biw) over a period of time. For example, an active agentis administered qid, qd, qod, tiw, or biw over a period of from one dayto about 2 years or more. For example, an active agent is administeredat any of the aforementioned frequencies for one week, two weeks, onemonth, two months, six months, one year, or two years, or more,depending on various factors.

Accordingly the amount of active agent administered to the subject perday may range from 10 grams/day to 500 grams/day, such as from 15grams/day to 450 grams/day, such as from 25 grams/day to 400 grams/day,such as from 50 grams/day to 300 grams/day and including from 100grams/day to 200 grams/day.

Where two different active agents are administered, a first active agentand a second active agent can be administered in separate formulations.A first active agent and a second active agent can be administeredsubstantially simultaneously, or within about 30 minutes, about 1 hour,about 2 hours, about 4 hours, about 8 hours, about 16 hours, about 24hours, about 36 hours, about 72 hours, about 4 days, about 7 days, orabout 2 weeks of one another.

It should be noted that where a particular, method, dosage, dosageregimen, route of administration, etc. described herein would beinappropriate due to the form of a compound of the present disclosure,e.g., due to the presence of a salt form of a compound of the presentdisclosure, the form of the compound may be selected for the method,dosage, dosage regimen, route of administration, etc. accordingly. Forexample, where the presence of a salt form of a compound of the presentdisclosure would be inappropriate (e.g., due to the presence of adetrimental amount of salt in a dosage form), the form of the compoundprovided for the particular method, dosage, dosage regimen, route ofadministration, etc., may specifically exclude a salt form of thecompound.

Routes of Administration

An active agent is administered to an individual using any availablemethod and route suitable for drug delivery, including in vivo and exvivo methods, as well as systemic and localized routes ofadministration.

Conventional and pharmaceutically acceptable routes of administrationinclude oral, intranasal, intramuscular, intratracheal, transdermal,subcutaneous, intradermal, topical application, intravenous, vaginal,nasal, and other parenteral routes of administration. In someembodiments, an active agent is administered orally. In someembodiments, an active agent is administered via an intravaginal routeof administration. In other embodiments, an active agent is administeredvia an intrarectal route of administration. Routes of administration maybe combined, if desired, or adjusted depending upon the agent and/or thedesired effect. The composition can be administered in a single dose orin multiple doses.

An active agent can be administered to a host using any availableconventional methods and routes suitable for delivery of conventionaldrugs, including systemic or localized routes. In general, routes ofadministration contemplated by the invention include, but are notnecessarily limited to, enteral, parenteral, or inhalational routes.

Parenteral routes of administration other than inhalation administrationinclude, but are not necessarily limited to, topical, vaginal,transdermal, subcutaneous, intramuscular, and intravenous routes, i.e.,any route of administration other than through the alimentary canal.Parenteral administration can be carried to effect systemic or localdelivery of the agent. Where systemic delivery is desired,administration typically involves invasive or systemically absorbedtopical or mucosal administration of pharmaceutical preparations.

An active agent can also be delivered to the subject by enteraladministration. Enteral routes of administration include, but are notnecessarily limited to, oral and rectal (e.g., using a suppository)delivery.

The term “treatment” as used herein can refer to an amelioration of thesymptoms associated with the pathological condition afflicting the host,where amelioration is used in a broad sense to refer to at least areduction in the magnitude of a parameter, e.g. symptom, associated withthe pathological condition being treated, e.g., the presence of abnormalepileptiform spikes. As such, treatment also includes situations wherethe pathological condition, or at least symptoms associated therewith,are completely inhibited, e.g. prevented from happening, or stopped,e.g. terminated, such that the host no longer suffers from thepathological condition, or at least the symptoms that characterize thepathological condition.

The compounds and compositions described herein may be administered to avariety of hosts (wherein the term “host” is used interchangeably hereinwith the terms “subject” and “patient”). In certain embodiments, thesubject is a “mammal” or is “mammalian”, where these terms are usedbroadly to describe organisms which are within the class mammalia,including the orders carnivore (e.g., dogs and cats), rodentia (e.g.,mice, guinea pigs, and rats), and primates (e.g., humans, chimpanzees,and monkeys). In some instances, the subjects are humans. Human subjectsmay be of both genders and at any stage of development (i.e., neonates,infant, juvenile, adolescent, adult), where in certain embodiments thehuman subject is a juvenile, adolescent or adult. While the presentdisclosure may be administered to a human subject, it is to beunderstood that the subject fatty acid β-hydroxyester compounds andfatty acid esters of butanediol may also be administered to animalsubjects (that is, in “non-human subjects”) such as, but not limited to,birds, mice, rats, dogs, cats, livestock and horses.

Kits, Containers, Devices, Delivery Systems

Kits with unit doses of the active agent, e.g. in oral, vaginal, rectal,transdermal, or injectable doses (e.g., for intramuscular, intravenous,or subcutaneous injection), are provided. In such kits, in addition tothe containers containing the unit doses will be an informationalpackage insert describing the use and attendant benefits of the subjectcompositions. Suitable active agents and unit doses are those describedherein above.

In many embodiments, a subject kit will further include instructions forpracticing the subject methods or means for obtaining the same (e.g., awebsite URL directing the user to a webpage which provides theinstructions), where these instructions are typically printed on asubstrate, which substrate may be one or more of: a package insert, thepackaging, formulation containers, and the like.

In some embodiments, a subject kit includes one or more components orfeatures that increase patient compliance, e.g., a component or systemto aid the patient in remembering to take the active agent at theappropriate time or interval. Such components include, but are notlimited to, a calendaring system to aid the patient in remembering totake the active agent at the appropriate time or interval.

In some embodiments, the delivery system is a delivery system thatprovides for injection of a formulation comprising an active agentsubcutaneously, intravenously, or intramuscularly. In other embodiments,the delivery system is a vaginal or rectal delivery system.

In some embodiments, an active agent is packaged for oraladministration. The present invention provides a packaging unitcomprising daily dosage units of an active agent. For example, thepackaging unit is in some embodiments a conventional blister pack or anyother form that includes tablets, pills, and the like. The blister packwill contain the appropriate number of unit dosage forms, in a sealedblister pack with a cardboard, paperboard, foil, or plastic backing, andenclosed in a suitable cover. Each blister container may be numbered orotherwise labeled, e.g., starting with day 1.

In some embodiments, a subject delivery system comprises an injectiondevice. Exemplary, non-limiting drug delivery devices include injectionsdevices, such as pen injectors, and needle/syringe devices. Peninjectors are well known in the art. Exemplary devices which can beadapted for use in the present methods are any of a variety of peninjectors from Becton Dickinson, e.g., BD™ Pen, BD™ Pen II, BD™Auto-Injector; a pen injector from Innoject, Inc.; any of the medicationdelivery pen devices discussed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,728,074, 6,096,010,6,146,361, 6,248,095, 6,277,099, and 6,221,053; the disclosures of eachof which are incorporated by reference herein; and the like. Themedication delivery pen can be disposable, or reusable and refillable.

The present invention provides a delivery system for vaginal or rectaldelivery of an active agent to the vagina or rectum of an individual.The delivery system comprises a device for insertion into the vagina orrectum. In some embodiments, the delivery system comprises an applicatorfor delivery of a formulation into the vagina or rectum; and a containerthat contains a formulation comprising an active agent. In theseembodiments, the container (e.g., a tube) is adapted for delivering aformulation into the applicator. In other embodiments, the deliverysystem comprises a device that is inserted into the vagina or rectum,which device includes an active agent. For example, the device is coatedwith, impregnated with, or otherwise contains a formulation comprisingthe active agent.

In some embodiments, the vaginal or rectal delivery system is a tamponor tampon-like device that comprises a subject formulation. Drugdelivery tampons are known in the art, and any such tampon can be usedin conjunction with a subject drug delivery system. Drug deliverytampons are described in, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 6,086,909, the disclosureof which is incorporated by reference herein. If a tampon or tampon-likedevice is used, there are numerous methods by which an active agent canbe incorporated into the device. For example, the drug can beincorporated into a gel-like bioadhesive reservoir in the tip of thedevice. Alternatively, the drug can be in the form of a powderedmaterial positioned at the tip of the tampon. The drug can also beabsorbed into fibers at the tip of the tampon, for example, bydissolving the drug in a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier andabsorbing the drug solution into the tampon fibers. The drug can also bedissolved in a coating material which is applied to the tip of thetampon. Alternatively, the drug can be incorporated into an insertablesuppository which is placed in association with the tip of the tampon.

In other embodiments, the drug delivery device is a vaginal or rectalring. Vaginal or rectal rings usually consist of an inert elastomer ringcoated by another layer of elastomer containing an active agent to bedelivered. The rings can be easily inserted, left in place for thedesired period of time (e.g., up to 7 days), then removed by the user.The ring can optionally include a third, outer, rate-controllingelastomer layer which contains no drug. Optionally, the third ring cancontain a second drug for a dual release ring. The drug can beincorporated into polyethylene glycol throughout the silicone elastomerring to act as a reservoir for drug to be delivered.

In other embodiments, a subject vaginal or rectal delivery system is avaginal or rectal sponge. The active agent is incorporated into asilicone matrix which is coated onto a cylindrical drug-freepolyurethane sponge, as described in the literature.

Pessaries, tablets, and suppositories are other examples of drugdelivery systems which can be used, e.g., in carrying out a method ofthe present disclosure. These systems have been described extensively inthe literature.

Bioadhesive microparticles constitute still another drug delivery systemsuitable for use in the present invention. This system is a multi-phaseliquid or semi-solid preparation which does not seep from the vagina orrectum as do many suppository formulations. The substances cling to thewall of the vagina or rectum and release the drug over a period of time.Many of these systems were designed for nasal use but can be used in thevagina or rectum as well (e.g. U.S. Pat. No. 4,756,907, the disclosureof which is incorporated by reference herein). The system may comprisemicrospheres with an active agent; and a surfactant for enhancing uptakeof the drug. The microparticles have a diameter of 10-100 μm and can beprepared from starch, gelatin, albumin, collagen, or dextran.

Another system is a container comprising a subject formulation (e.g., atube) that is adapted for use with an applicator. The active agent isincorporated into creams, lotions, foams, paste, ointments, and gelswhich can be applied to the vagina or rectum using an applicator.Processes for preparing pharmaceuticals in cream, lotion, foam, paste,ointment and gel formats can be found throughout the literature. Anexample of a suitable system is a standard fragrance free lotionformulation containing glycerol, ceramides, mineral oil, petrolatum,parabens, fragrance and water such as the product sold under thetrademark JERGENS™ (Andrew Jergens Co., Cincinnati, Ohio). Suitablenontoxic pharmaceutically acceptable systems for use in the compositionsof the present invention will be apparent to those skilled in the art ofpharmaceutical formulations and examples are described in Remington'sPharmaceutical Sciences, 19th Edition, A. R. Gennaro, ed., 1995. Thechoice of suitable carriers will depend on the exact nature of theparticular vaginal or rectal dosage form desired, e.g., whether theactive ingredient(s) is/are to be formulated into a cream, lotion, foam,ointment, paste, solution, or gel, as well as on the identity of theactive ingredient(s). Other suitable delivery devices are thosedescribed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,476,079, the disclosure of which isincorporated by reference herein.

Treatment Methods

The present disclosure also provides methods for treating a subject byadministering one or more fatty acid β-hydroxyester compound and/or oneor more esters of butanediol to the subject or a pharmaceuticallyacceptable salt thereof. In some embodiments, methods includeadministering one or more fatty acid β-hydroxyester compound orpharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof to the subject. In otherembodiments, methods include administering one or more esters ofbutanediol or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof to the subject.In certain embodiments, methods include administering a combination ofone or more fatty acid β-hydroxyester compound or a pharmaceuticallyacceptable salt thereof and one or more esters of butanediol or apharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof to the subject. Where both afatty acid β-hydroxyester compound and an esters of butanediol areadministered to the subject, in certain instances, the mass ratio offatty acid β-hydroxyester compound to ester of butanediol ranges from10:1 to 1:1, such as from 9:1 to 1.5:1, such as from 8:1 to 2:1, such asfrom 7:1 to 2.5:1, such as from 6:1 to 3:1 and including from 5:1 to4:1. In other instances the mass ratio of fatty acid β-hydroxyestercompound to ester of butanediol ranges from 1:10 to 1:1 such as from 1:9to 1:1, such as from 1:8 to 1:1.5, such as from 1:7 to 1:2, such as from1:6 to 1:2.5 and including from 1:5 to 1:3.

In some embodiments, methods include treating one or more of Alzheimer'sdisease, epilepsy, Parkinson's disease, heart failure, traumatic braininjury, stroke, hemorrhagic shock, acute lung injury after fluidresuscitation, acute kidney injury, myocardial infarction, myocardialischemia, diabetes, glioblastoma multiforme, diabetic neuropathy,prostate cancer, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Huntington's disease,cutaneous T cell lymphoma, multiple myeloma, peripheral T cell lymphoma,HIV, Niemann-Pick Type C disease, age-related macular degeneration,gout, atherosclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis and multiple sclerosis byadministering one or more of the fatty acid β-hydroxyester compoundsand/or one or more of the esters of butanediol described herein to asubject.

In certain embodiments, methods include treating Alzheimer's disease byadministering to the subject one or more of the fatty acidβ-hydroxyester compounds and/or one or more esters of butanedioldescribed herein. In some instances, the amount (as described above) ofthe one or more fatty acid β-hydroxyester compounds and/or one or moreesters of butanediol administered to the subject is sufficient to reduceepileptiform activity in the subject. For example, the subject methodsmay include administering an amount of the subject fatty acidβ-hydroxyester compounds or esters of butanediol sufficient to reduceepileptiform activity by 5% or more, such as 10% or more, such as 15% ormore, such as 25% or more, such as 40% or more, such as 50% or more,such as 75% or more, such as 90% or more, such as 95% or more, such as99% or more and including reducing epileptiform activity by 99.9% ormore.

In other instances, the amount of the one or more fatty acidβ-hydroxyester compounds and/or one or more esters of butanedioladministered to the subject is sufficient to increase cognition in thesubject. For example, the subject methods may include administering anamount of the subject fatty acid β-hydroxyester compounds or fatty acidesters of butanediol sufficient to increase cognition in the subject by5% or more, such as 10% or more, such as 15% or more, such as 25% ormore, such as 40% or more, such as 50% or more, such as 75% or more,such as 90% or more, such as 95% or more, such as 99% or more andincluding increasing cognition in the subject by 99.9% or more.

In yet other instances, the amount of the one or more fatty acidβ-hydroxyester compounds and/or one or more esters of butanedioladministered to the subject is sufficient to reduce the rate of declineof cognition in the subject. For example, the subject methods mayinclude administering an amount of the subject fatty acid β-hydroxyestercompounds or fatty acid esters of butanediol sufficient to decrease therate of decline of cognition in the subject by 5% or more, such as 10%or more, such as 15% or more, such as 25% or more, such as 40% or more,such as 50% or more, such as 75% or more, such as 90% or more, such as95% or more, such as 99% or more and including reducing the rate ofdecline in cognition in the subject by 99.9% or more.

Cognition level in a subject may be assessed by any convenient protocol,including but not limited to the Montreal Cognitive Assessment (MoCA),St. Louis University Mental State Exam (SLUMS), Mini Mental State Exam(MMSE), and, for research purposes, Alzheimer's Disease AssessmentScale, Cognition (ADAS-Cog), as well as assessments including Activitiesof Daily Living (ADLs) and Instrumental Activities of Daily Living(IADLs).

In certain embodiments, the amount of the one or more fatty acidβ-hydroxyester compounds and/or one or more esters of butanedioladministered to the subject is sufficient to improve a subject's dailyfunction such as determined by assessments by Activities of Daily Living(ADLs) and Instrumental Activities of Daily Living (IADLs).

In other embodiments, the amount of the one or more fatty acidβ-hydroxyester compounds and/or one or more esters of butanedioladministered to the subject is sufficient to reduce agitated behaviorsin the subject. For example, the subject methods may includeadministering an amount of the subject fatty acid β-hydroxyestercompounds or fatty acid esters of butanediol sufficient to reduceagitated behaviors in the subject by 5% or more, such as 10% or more,such as 15% or more, such as 25% or more, such as 40% or more, such as50% or more, such as 75% or more, such as 90% or more, such as 95% ormore, such as 99% or more and including reducing agitated behaviors inthe subject in the subject by 99.9% or more. Agitated behavior may beassessed by any convenient protocol such as assessed by theNeuropsychiatric Inventory (NPI).

In yet other embodiments, the amount of the one or more fatty acidβ-hydroxyester compounds and/or one or more esters of butanedioladministered to the subject is sufficient to reduce delirium in thesubject. For example, the subject methods may include administering anamount of the subject fatty acid β-hydroxyester compounds or fatty acidesters of butanediol sufficient to reduce delirium in the subject by 5%or more, such as 10% or more, such as 15% or more, such as 25% or more,such as 40% or more, such as 50% or more, such as 75% or more, such as90% or more, such as 95% or more, such as 99% or more and includingreducing delirium in the subject in the subject by 99.9% or more.

In still other embodiments, the amount of the one or more fatty acidβ-hydroxyester compounds and/or one or more esters of butanedioladministered to the subject is sufficient to reduce stress experiencedby a caregiver to the subject. For example, the subject methods mayinclude administering an amount of the subject fatty acid β-hydroxyestercompounds or fatty acid esters of butanediol sufficient to reduce stressexperienced by a caregiver to the subject by 5% or more, such as 10% ormore, such as 15% or more, such as 25% or more, such as 40% or more,such as 50% or more, such as 75% or more, such as 90% or more, such as95% or more, such as 99% or more and including reducing stressexperienced by a caregiver to the subject in the subject by 99.9% ormore. Caregiver stress may be assessed by any convenient protocol suchas assessed by the Perceived Stress Scale (PSS).

In practicing the subject methods, protocols for specific subjects mayvary, such as for example by age, weight, severity of the pain, thegeneral health of the subject, as well as the particular concentrationof the fatty acid β-hydroxyester compound and/or fatty acid ester ofbutanediol being administered. In embodiments, the dosage deliveredduring administration may vary, in some instances, ranging from 5 mg to800 mg. As such, depending on the physiology of the subject as well asthe desired therapeutic effect, the dosage of provided by subjectmethods may range, from 5 to 800 mg, such as 10 to about 500 mg, such as20 to 400 mg, such as 25 to 350 mg, such as 30 to 300 mg, such as 40 to250 mg and including 40 to 200 mg.

Therefore, the dosage interest may vary, ranging from about 0.1 g/kg to25 g/kg per day, such as from 0.1 g/kg to 20 g/kg per day, such as 0.1g/kg to 18 g/kg per day, such as 0.1 g/kg to 15 g/kg per day, such as0.1 g/kg to 10 g/kg per day, and including 0.1 g/kg to 5 g/kg per day,such as from 0.5 g/kg to 10 g/kg per day, such as from 0.5 g/kg to 9g/kg per day, such as from 0.5 g/kg to 8 g/kg per day, such as from 0.5g/kg to 5 g/kg per day, such as from 0.5 g/kg to 3 g/kg per day, such asfrom 0.5 g/kg to 2 g/kg per day and including from 0.5 g/kg to 1 g/kgper day. In certain instances, the dosage is 1 g/kg per day. In otherembodiments, the dosage may range from 0.1 to 6.5 g/kg four times perday (QID), such as 0.1 to 5 g/kg QID, such as 0.1 g/kg to 4 g/kg QID. Inother embodiments, the oral dosage may range from 0.01 g/kg to 8.5 g/kgthree times per day (TID), such as 0.1 g/kg to 6 g/kg TID, such as 0.1g/kg to 5 g/kg TID, and including as 0.1 g/kg to 4 g/kg TID. In yetother embodiments, the oral dosage may range from 0.1 g/kg to 13 g/kgtwo times per day (BID), such as 0.1 g/kg to 12 g/kg BID, such as 5 g/kgto 10 g/kg BID, including 0.1 g/kg to 8 g/kg BID. The amount of compoundadministered will depend on the physiology of the subject, theabsorptivity of fatty acid β-hydroxyester compound and/or fatty acidester of butanediol by the subject, as well as the magnitude oftherapeutic effect desired. Dosing schedules may include, but is notlimited to administration five times per day, four times per day, threetimes per day, twice per day, once per day, three times per week, twiceper week, once per week, twice per month, once per month, and anycombination thereof.

In some embodiments, the subject methods may include chronicadministration requiring the subject methods and compositions inmultiple doses over an extended period, for example over one month andfor up to 10 years.

The duration between dosage intervals in a multiple dosage intervaltreatment regimen may vary, depending on the physiology of the subjector by the treatment regimen as determined by a health care professional.In certain instances, the duration between dosage intervals in amultiple dosage treatment regimen may be predetermined and follow atregular intervals. As such, the time between dosing intervals may varyand may be 0.5 hours or longer, such as 1 hour or longer, such as 2hours or longer, such as 4 hours or longer, such as 8 hours or longer,such as 12 hours or longer, such as 16 hours or longer, such as 24 hoursor longer, such as 48 hours or longer and including 72 hours or longer.

In certain embodiments, the subject methods include administering one ormore fatty acid β-hydroxyester compounds or pharmaceutically acceptablesalts thereof and/or one or more esters of butanediol orpharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof to the subject in combinationwith a ketogenic diet. The phrase “ketogenic diet” is used herein in itsconventional sense to refer to a diet, which provides, afterconsumption, digestion and metabolism, ketone bodies as a major sourceof energy. Ketone bodies physiologically provided by the ketogenic dietinclude acetoacetate, β-hydroxybutyrate and acetone. Suitable ketogenicdiets may include, but are not limited those described in Fenton et al.,ICAN 2009, 1:338; Neal et al., Lancet Neurology 2008, 7:500; Hartman andVinning, Epilepsia 2007, 1:31; Kossoff et al., Epilepsia 2009, 50:304the disclosures of which are herein incorporated by reference. Inpracticing the subject methods, the subject fatty acid β-hydroxyestercompounds or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof and/or esters ofbutanediol or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof may beadministered before, after or in conjunction with the ketogenic diet. Incertain embodiments, the subject methods include administering thesubject fatty acid β-hydroxyester compounds or pharmaceuticallyacceptable salts thereof and/or esters of butanediol or pharmaceuticallyacceptable salts thereof prior to commencing the ketogenic diet. Inother embodiments, methods include administering the subject fatty acidβ-hydroxyester compounds or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereofand/or esters of butanediol or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereofafter completing one or more intervals of a ketogenic diet. In stillother embodiments, methods include administering the subject fatty acidβ-hydroxyester compounds or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereofand/or esters of butanediol or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereofin conjunction with the ketogenic diet.

Exemplary Non-Limiting Aspects of the Disclosure

Aspects, including embodiments, of the present subject matter describedabove may be beneficial alone or in combination, with one or more otheraspects or embodiments. Without limiting the foregoing description,certain non-limiting aspects of the disclosure numbered 1-48 areprovided below. As will be apparent to those of skill in the art uponreading this disclosure, each of the individually numbered aspects maybe used or combined with any of the preceding or following individuallynumbered aspects. This is intended to provide support for all suchcombinations of aspects and is not limited to combinations of aspectsexplicitly provided below.

-   1. A compound of formula I:

-   -   wherein    -   R₁ is H or C(1-6) alkyl or substituted alkyl; and    -   R₂ and R₃ are independently unsubstituted or substituted C(4-30)        alkyl.

-   2. The compound according to 1, wherein R₁ is an unsubstituted    C(1-6) alkyl.

-   3. The compound according to 2, wherein R₁ is methyl.

-   4. The compound according to any one of 1-3, wherein R₂ and R₃ are    independently unsubstituted C(6-18) alkyl.

-   5. The compound according to any one of 1-3, wherein R₂ and R₃ are    independently unsubstituted C6 alkyl.

-   6. The compound according to any one of 1-3, wherein R₂ and R₃ are    independently unsubstituted C8 alkyl.

-   7. A compound according to 1, wherein the compound is of formula Ia:

-   -   wherein    -   R₁ is H or C(1-6) alkyl or substituted alkyl; and    -   R₂ and R₃ are independently unsubstituted or substituted C(4-30)        alkyl.

-   8. The compound according to 7, wherein R₁ is an unsubstituted    C(1-6) alkyl.

-   9. The compound according to 8, wherein R₁ is methyl.

-   10. The compound according to any one of 7-9, wherein R₂ and R₃ are    independently unsubstituted C(6-18) alkyl.

-   11. The compound according to any one of 7-9, wherein R₂ and R₃ are    independently unsubstituted C6 alkyl.

-   12. The compound according to any one of 7-9, wherein R₂ and R₃ are    independently unsubstituted C8 alkyl.

-   13. A compound according to 1, wherein the compound is of formula    Ib:

-   -   wherein    -   R₁ is H or C(1-6) alkyl or substituted alkyl; and    -   R₂ and R₃ are independently unsubstituted or substituted C(4-30)        alkyl.

-   14. The compound according to 13, wherein R₁ is an unsubstituted    C(1-6) alkyl.

-   15. The compound according to 14, wherein R₁ is methyl.

-   16. The compound according to any one of 13-15, wherein R₂ and R₃    are independently unsubstituted C(6-18) alkyl.

-   17. The compound according to any one of 13-15, wherein R₂ and R₃    are independently unsubstituted C6 alkyl.

-   18. The compound according to any one of 13-15, wherein R₂ and R₃    are independently unsubstituted C8 alkyl.

-   19. A composition comprising a compound according to any one of 1-18    and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier.

-   20. A method comprising administering to a subject in need thereof,    a therapeutically effective amount of a compound according to any    one of 1-18 or a composition according to 19.

-   21. The method according to 20, wherein the therapeutically    effective amount is sufficient to reduce epileptiform activity in    the brain of the subject.

-   22. A method for treating one or more of Alzheimer's disease,    epilepsy, Parkinson's disease, heart failure, traumatic brain    injury, stroke, hemorrhagic shock, acute lung injury after fluid    resuscitation, acute kidney injury, myocardial infarction,    myocardial ischemia, diabetes, glioblastoma multiforme, diabetic    neuropathy, prostate cancer, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis,    Huntington's disease, cutaneous T cell lymphoma, multiple myeloma,    peripheral T cell lymphoma, HIV, Niemann-Pick Type C disease,    age-related macular degeneration, gout, atherosclerosis, rheumatoid    arthritis and multiple sclerosis comprising:    -   administering to a subject a therapeutically effective amount of        a compound according to any one of 1-18 or a composition        according to 19.

-   23. The method according to 22, wherein the therapeutically    effective amount is sufficient to reduce epileptiform activity in    the brain of the subject.

-   24. A method of reducing epileptiform activity in the brain of a    subject, the method comprising administering to the subject a    therapeutically effective amount of a compound according to any one    of 1-18 or a composition according to 19.

-   25. A food supplement comprising a compound according to any one of    1-18.

-   26. A composition comprising:    -   a food supplement comprising a compound according to any one of        1-18; and one or more additional components of a ketogenic diet.

-   27. The composition according to 26, wherein the compound is present    in the composition in an amount of from about 1% w/w to about 25%    w/w.

-   28. The composition according to 26, wherein the compound is present    in the composition in an amount of from about 5% w/w to about 15%    w/w.

-   29. The composition according to 26, wherein the compound is present    in the composition in an amount of about 10% w/w.

-   30. The composition according to 26, wherein the ketogenic diet    comprises a ratio by mass of fat to protein and carbohydrates of    from about 2:1 to about 10:1.

-   31. The composition according to 30, wherein the ketogenic diet    comprises a ratio by mass of fat to protein and carbohydrates of    from about 3:1 to about 6:1.

-   32. The composition according to 30, wherein the ketogenic diet    comprises a ratio by mass of fat to protein and carbohydrates of    about 4:1.

-   33. A compound of formula II:

-   -   wherein    -   R4 is H or C(1-6) alkyl or substituted alkyl; and    -   R5 and R6 are independently unsubstituted or substituted C(4-30)        alkyl.

-   34. The compound according to 33, wherein R4 is an unsubstituted    C(1-6) alkyl.

-   35. The compound according to 34, wherein R4 is methyl.

-   36. The compound according to any one of 33-35, wherein R5 and R6    are independently unsubstituted C(6-18) alkyl.

-   37. The compound according to any one of 33-35, wherein R5 and R6    are independently unsubstituted C6 alkyl.

-   38. The compound according to any one of 33-35, wherein R5 and R6    are independently unsubstituted C8 alkyl.

-   39. A compound according to 33, wherein the compound is of formula    Ia:

-   -   wherein    -   R4 is H or C(1-6) alkyl or substituted alkyl; and    -   R5 and R6 are independently unsubstituted or substituted C(4-30)        alkyl.

-   40. The compound according to 39, wherein R4 is an unsubstituted    C(1-6) alkyl.

-   41. The compound according to 40, wherein R4 is methyl.

-   42. The compound according to any one of 39-41, wherein R5 and R6    are independently unsubstituted C(6-18) alkyl.

-   43. The compound according to any one of 39-41, wherein R5 and R6    are independently unsubstituted C6 alkyl.

-   44. The compound according to any one of 39-41, wherein R5 and R6    are independently unsubstituted C8 alkyl.

-   45. A compound according to 33, wherein the compound is of formula    Ib:

-   -   wherein    -   R4 is H or C(1-6) alkyl or substituted alkyl; and    -   R5 and R6 are independently unsubstituted or substituted C(4-30)        alkyl.

-   46. The compound according to 45, wherein R4 is an unsubstituted    C(1-6) alkyl.

-   47. The compound according to 46, wherein R4 is methyl.

-   48. The compound according to any one of 45-47, wherein R5 and R6    are independently unsubstituted C(6-18) alkyl.

-   49. The compound according to any one of 45-47, wherein R5 and R6    are independently unsubstituted C6 alkyl.

-   50. The compound according to any one of 45-47, wherein R5 and R6    are independently unsubstituted C8 alkyl.

-   51. A composition comprising a compound according to any one of    33-50 and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier.

-   52. A method comprising administering to a subject in need thereof,    a therapeutically effective amount of a compound according to any    one of 33-50 or a composition according to 51.

-   53. The method according to 52, wherein the therapeutically    effective amount is sufficient to reduce epileptiform activity in    the brain of the subject.

-   54. A method for treating one or more of Alzheimer's disease,    epilepsy, Parkinson's disease, heart failure, traumatic brain    injury, stroke, hemorrhagic shock, acute lung injury after fluid    resuscitation, acute kidney injury, myocardial infarction,    myocardial ischemia, diabetes, glioblastoma multiforme, diabetic    neuropathy, prostate cancer, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis,    Huntington's disease, cutaneous T cell lymphoma, multiple myeloma,    peripheral T cell lymphoma, HIV, Niemann-Pick Type C disease,    age-related macular degeneration, gout, atherosclerosis, rheumatoid    arthritis and multiple sclerosis comprising:    -   administering to a subject a therapeutically effective amount of        a compound according to any one of 33-50 or a composition        according to 51.

-   55. The method according to 54, wherein the therapeutically    effective amount is sufficient to reduce epileptiform activity in    the brain of the subject.

-   56. A method of reducing epileptiform activity in the brain of a    subject, the method comprising administering to the subject a    therapeutically effective amount of a compound according to any one    of 33-50 or a composition according to 51.

-   57. A food supplement comprising a compound according to any one of    33-50.

-   58. A composition comprising:    -   a food supplement comprising a compound according to any one of        33-50; and    -   one or more components of a ketogenic diet.

-   59. The composition according to 58, wherein the compound is present    in the composition in an amount of from about 1% w/w to about 25%    w/w.

-   60. The composition according to 58, wherein the compound is present    in the composition in an amount of from about 5% w/w to about 15%    w/w.

-   61. The composition according to 58, wherein the compound is present    in the composition in an amount of about 10% w/w.

-   62. The composition according to 58, wherein the ketogenic diet    comprises a ratio by mass of fat to protein and carbohydrates of    from about 2:1 to about 10:1.

-   63. The composition according to 58, wherein the ketogenic diet    comprises a ratio by mass of fat to protein and carbohydrates of    from about 3:1 to about 6:1.

-   64. The composition according to 58, wherein the ketogenic diet    comprises a ratio by mass of fat to protein and carbohydrates of    about 4:1.

EXAMPLES

The following examples are put forth so as to provide those of ordinaryskill in the art with a complete disclosure and description of how tomake and use the present invention, and are not intended to limit thescope of what the inventors regard as their invention nor are theyintended to represent that the experiments below are all or the onlyexperiments performed. Efforts have been made to ensure accuracy withrespect to numbers used (e.g. amounts, temperature, etc.) but someexperimental errors and deviations should be accounted for. Unlessindicated otherwise, parts are parts by weight, molecular weight isweight average molecular weight, temperature is in degrees Celsius, andpressure is at or near atmospheric. Standard abbreviations may be used,e.g., bp, base pair(s); kb, kilobase(s); pl, picoliter(s); s or sec,second(s); min, minute(s); h or hr, hour(s); aa, amino acid(s); kb,kilobase(s); bp, base pair(s); nt, nucleotide(s); i.m.,intramuscular(ly); i.p., intraperitoneal(ly); s.c., subcutaneous(ly);and the like.

General Synthetic Procedures

The ketone esters described herein, may be prepared by chemicalsynthesis protocols known to those of skill in the art (See e.g., Greenet al., “Protective Groups in Organic Chemistry,” (Wiley, 2nd ed. 1991);Harrison et al., “Compendium of Synthetic Organic Methods,” Vols. 1 8(John Wiley and Sons, 1971 1996); “Beilstein Handbook of OrganicChemistry,” Beilstein Institute of Organic Chemistry, Frankfurt,Germany; Feiser et al., “Reagents for Organic Synthesis,” Volumes 1 17,(Wiley Interscience); Trost et al., “Comprehensive Organic Synthesis,”(Pergamon Press, 1991); “Theilheimer's Synthetic Methods of OrganicChemistry,” Volumes 1 45, (Karger, 1991); March, “Advanced OrganicChemistry,” (Wiley Interscience), 1991; Larock “Comprehensive OrganicTransformations,” (VCH Publishers, 1989); Paquette, “Encyclopedia ofReagents for Organic Synthesis,” (John Wiley & Sons, 1995), Bodanzsky,“Principles of Peptide Synthesis,” (Springer Verlag, 1984); Bodanzsky,“Practice of Peptide Synthesis,” (Springer Verlag, 1984). Further,starting materials may be obtained from commercial sources or viawell-established synthetic procedures.

β-Hydroxyesters Compounds

β-hydroxyester compounds described herein may be obtained via syntheticroutes as generically illustrated below:

In Scheme 1, the hydroxyl group of β-hydroxyester RE-1 is deprotonatedwith a weak base (e.g., pyridine) and reacted with a substituted acylchloride to give acyl-substituted β-hydroxyester AHE-1. R₄ may be H or asubstituted or unsubstituted C(1-6) alkyl; R₅ and R₆ are independentlysubstituted or unsubstituted C(4-30) alkyl.

In Scheme 2, sodium β-hydroxyester HE-2 is reacted in a polar aproticsolvent (e.g., dimethylformamide) with an alkyl bromide to give alkylβ-hydroxyester HE-3. Deprotonation of the hydroxyl group ofβ-hydroxyester KE-3 with a weak base (e.g., pyridine) and reaction witha substituted acyl chloride gives acyl-substituted β-hydroxyester AHE-2.R₄ may be H or a substituted or unsubstituted C(1-6) alkyl; R₆ and R₇are independently substituted or unsubstituted C(4-30) alkyl.

Example 1 Synthesis of Acyl Substituted Ethyl β-Hydroxybutyrate

As depicted in Scheme 3, one molar equivalent of R-ethylβ-hydroxybutyrate is dissolved in pyridine to a concentration of 0.2molar. The solution is placed under nitrogen atmosphere and cooled to 0°C. A substituted (e.g., hexyl, FIGS. 1a-1b and octyl, FIGS. 2a-2b ) acylchloride at 2 molar equivalent is added dropwise via syringe to theβ-hydroxyester solution while stirring. The reaction mixture is allowedto warm to room temperature and stirred overnight. The reaction was thenloaded into a separatory funnel and diluted with 1.5 volumes of ethylacetate (based on reaction volume) and was then washed 5 times with 0.5volumes of hydrochloric acid solution (HCl 10%) then 4 times with 0.5volumes of a saturated aqueous sodium bicarbonate solution and once withbrine. The ethyl acetate layer was then dried with magnesium sulfate,filtered and the solvent removed by rotary evaporation. The crudeproduct was analyzed by ¹H NMR (FIGS. 1a and 2a ) and gas chromatographmass spectrometry (FIGS. 1b and 2b ). Pure (>95%) product was seen, withthe main contaminant being pyridine, which was removed by further vacuumpumping.

Example 2 Synthesis of Acyl Substituted Hexyl β-Hydroxybutyrate

As depicted in Scheme 4, Sodium β-hydroxybutyrate (1 molar equivalent)was suspended in dry dimethylformamide to a concentration of 0.2 molar.1-bromohexane (0.7 molar equivalents) was added, the reaction vessel wassealed and heated to 60 degrees C. with stirring for 18 hours, duringwhich time the reaction mixture became clear. It was then cooled andloaded into a separatory funnel and diluted with 1.5 volumes of ethylacetate (based on the reaction volume). It was then washed five timeswith 0.5 volumes of a saturated aqueous sodium bicarbonate solution andonce with brine. The ethyl acetate layer was then dried with magnesiumsulfate, filtered, and the solvent removed by rotary evaporation. Thecrude product was analyzed by 1H NMR and GC-MS. Pure (>95%) product wasseen, with the main contaminant being 1-bromohexane, which was removedby further vacuum pumping.

The hexyl β-hydroxybutyrate product was then dissolved in pyridine to aconcentration of 0.2 molar. The solution was placed under a nitrogenatmosphere and cooled at 0 deg C. The appropriate acyl chloride (2 molarequivalents) was added dropwise via syringe to the solution withstirring. The reaction mixture was allowed to warm to room temperatureand stirred overnight. The reaction mixture was then loaded into aseparatory funnel and diluted with 1.5 volumes of ethyl acetate (basedon the reaction volume). It was then washed five times with 0.5 volumesof a hydrochloric acid solution (10%), then four times with 0.5 volumesof a saturated aqueous sodium bicarbonate solution and once with brine.The ethyl acetate layer was then dried with magnesium sulfate, filtered,and the solvent removed by rotary evaporation. The crude product wasanalyzed by ¹H-NMR (FIG. 3a ) and GC-MS (FIG. 3b ). Pure (>95%) productwas seen, with the main contaminant being pyridine, which was removed byfurther vacuum pumping.

1,3-Butanediol Esters

1,3-butanediol esters described herein may be obtained via syntheticroutes as generically illustrated below:

In Scheme 5, the hydroxyl groups of 1,3-butandiol BD-1 is deprotonatedwith a weak base (e.g., pyridine) and reacted with at least 2equivalents of a substituted acyl chloride to give homo-acyl-substituted1,3-butanediol ester BDE-1. R₁ may be H or a substituted orunsubstituted C(1-6) alkyl; R₂ is substituted or unsubstituted C(4-30)alkyl.

In Scheme 6, each hydroxyl group of 1,3-butandiol BD-1 is stepwisedeprotonated with a weak base (e.g., pyridine) and reacted with 1equivalent of a first substituted acyl chloride and 1 equivalent of asecond substituted acyl chloride to give hetero-acyl-substituted1,3-butanediol ester BDE-2. R₁ may be H or a substituted orunsubstituted C(1-6) alkyl; R₂ and R₃ are independently substituted orunsubstituted C(4-30) alkyl.

Example 3 Synthesis of Acyl Substituted R-1,3-Butanediol

As depicted in Scheme 7, R-1,3-butanediol (1 molar equivalent) wasdissolved in pyridine to a concentration of 0.2 molar. The solution wasplaced under a nitrogen atmosphere and cooled at 0 deg C. 3-3.5 molarequivalents of the appropriate acyl chloride (hexyl, FIGS. 4a-4b ;octyl, FIGS. 5a-5b ) was added dropwise via syringe to the solution withstirring. The reaction mixture was allowed to warm to room temperatureand stirred overnight. The reaction mixture was then loaded into aseparatory funnel and diluted with 1.5 volumes of ethyl acetate (basedon the reaction volume). It was then washed five times with 0.5 volumesof a hydrochloric acid solution (10%), then four times with 0.5 volumesof a saturated aqueous sodium bicarbonate solution and once with brine.The ethyl acetate layer was then dried with magnesium sulfate, filtered,and the solvent removed by rotary evaporation. The crude product wasanalyzed by ¹H-NMR (FIGS. 4a and 5a ) and GC-MS (FIGS. 4b and 5b ). Pure(>95%) product was seen, with the main contaminant being pyridine, whichwas removed by further vacuum pumping.

Example 4 Biological Function in Increasing BHB Levels in Blood ofWild-Type C57BL/6 Male Mice

Materials and Methods

C6 and C8 esters of butanediol and C6 and C8 esters of β-hydroxybutyratewere synthesized as described above and purified for testing inwild-type C57BL/6Ncrl male mice obtained from Charles RiverLaboratories. Mice were 8 months old at the time of the experiment. Thebiological function of C6 and C8 esters of butanediol andβ-hydroxybutyrate was tested by intraperitoneal injection at two doseseach, 50 uL and 100 uL. Injection was performed approximately 9 am (miceare maintained on 7 a-7 p light-dark cycle) and mice had access to foodand water at all times. The molar quantity injected varied from0.13-0.41 millimoles depending on the compound and dose. The subjectmice weighed approximately 30 grams, so the quantity of compoundinjected ranged approximately from 1 g/kg to 3 g/kg. For comparison,these amounts could theoretically supply about 1/20 of a mouse's dailycaloric needs—equivalent in humans to around 100 calories. Blood wasdrawn by distal tail nick just prior to injection (baseline) and at 30min, 1 hour, 2 hours, 4 hours, and 6 hours after injection.Approximately 40 uL of blood was collected into lithium-heparinmicrovettes (Sarstedt CB-300LH) and subsequently centrifuged 15 min at1500×G at 4° C. to separate plasma. Plasma BHB levels were determined bya colorimetric enzymatic assay (Stanbio Laboratory 2440-058).

Results

All of the compounds increased blood BHB levels (FIGS. 6a-6c ). TheC6-BHB and C8-BHB compounds, at both doses tested, increased BHB levelsto that seen on a ketogenic diet (0.5-2 mM), or after an overnight fast(1-3 mM) in similar mice (FIG. 6a ). The only side effect observed was amild sedation at the higher dose of C6-BHB. Food intake was notmeasured, but a 6-hour fast does not significantly increase blood BHBlevels (FIG. 6c ), so the increase seen with the compounds was not dueto inadvertent fasting. Importantly, the increase of blood BHB washigher than that seen by injection of a similar molar dose of BHB (FIG.6c ) or BD alone (FIG. 6b ), demonstrating that the fatty acid andBHB/BD components of the compound have the expected separate andadditive activities in increasing blood BHB levels. Altogether, thesedata show that the novel BHB/BD-fatty acid ester compounds have theexpected biological function of increasing blood BHB levels, in somecases to the similar extent as an overnight fast and lasting for severalhours.

Example 5 Ketogenic Diet Acutely Suppresses Epileptiform Spikes inAPPJ20 Mice

Materials and Methods

Ketogenic diet and overnight fasting were tested to determinesuppression of epileptiform spikes in one-year-old APPJ20 mice. APPJ20mice carry a human APP gene with several mutations that causeAlzheimer's disease in humans. Heterozygous mice carrying the APPtransgene were studied, with comparison to non-transgenic (NTG),wild-type littermates. These mice show early and severe cognitivedeficits, as well as characteristic epileptiform spikes inelectroencephalographs (EEG) that contribute to their cognitivedeficits. Reductions in the epileptiform spikes by genetic manipulationor by the antiepileptic drug levetiracetam are associated with cognitiveimprovement. The studies described here all used both male and femalemice, and the data is presented as the summary of all mice except wheremice are specifically stratified by sex. There were no differences whenresults were stratified by sex except where specifically noted. The miceand this epileptiform activity are described further in Palop et al.,Neuron 2007, 55:697-711.

A longitudinal cohort of mice undergoing serial 23-hour EEG recordingsunder three conditions was used in this study: first, baseline on anormal control diet; second, two days after starting a ketogenic diet(KD); and third, during an overnight fast. Mice were maintained on thecontrol diet for eight weeks prior to the baseline EEG, and for threeweeks in between KD and fasting EEGs. The control diet is based onAIN-93M, including 10% of calories from protein and 78% of calories fromcarbohydrates. The ketogenic diet contains 90% of calories from fat, andzero carbohydrates, but is otherwise matched to the control diet on aper-calorie basis. Diets were custom-synthesized to specifications byHarlan-Teklad (now Envigo). Caloric intake and blood BHB levels werestable within two days of switching to KD, and that KD and fastingproduced similar 1-2 mM blood levels of BHB.

During the EEG recordings, mice were freely moving in one of fourtransparent plastic cylinders approximately the size of a home cage.Harmonie Stellate software was used for EEG recording and forautomatically detecting sharp-wave spikes. Mice were also video-recordedduring the EEG sessions, and Noldus Ethovision software was used toquantify movement. Raw movement data was cleansed to eliminatereflection or other artifacts prior to data analysis. Gamma activity,defined as power recorded by the EEG in the 20-80 Hz range, wasquantified using LabChart software. Data analysis was performed usingGraphPad Prism and custom-written Perl programs. The EEG, datarecording, and data analysis methodology is described further in Verretet al., Cell 2012, 149:708-721.

Results

FIGS. 7a-7h demonstrate that a ketogenic diet, but not fasting,consistently reduced epileptiform spikes in APPJ20 mice. As shown in 7a,23-hour EEG recorded 2 days after starting KD showed ˜30% average spikereduction compared to prior baseline on a control diet, from 2.13spikes/min to 1.48 spikes/min. Overnight fasted mice showed no change onaverage. FIG. 7b shows hourly spike totals during 23-hour EEGrecordings, demonstrating that spike suppression was consistentthroughout the 23-hour recordings. FIG. 7c ) shows spike reductions inindividual mice, normalized to each mouse's baseline recording (filledcircles, P<0.05; bar=median). 6 of 9 mice had an overall reduction inspikes on KD, with none increased over baseline. In contrast, althoughfasting reduced spikes in some mice it exacerbated them in others,resulting in no change on average.

Example 6 Spike Suppression by Ketogenic Diet is Independent ofInterneuron Function

Materials and Methods

Ketogenic diet and overnight fasting were used to test the mechanism ofepileptiform spike suppression by ketogenic diet in one-year-old APPJ20mice. The longitudinal cohort of mice undergoing serial 23-hour EEGrecordings was described in Example 5 above. The methodology for dataacquisition and analysis was also described in Example 5 above. Movementdata, gamma power data, and spike data were collated at one-minuteintervals to explore the instantaneous relationships between exploratorymovement, inhibitory interneuron gamma activity, and spikes.

Results

Exploratory movement is associated with suppression of epileptiformspikes via increased inhibitory gamma activity from parvalbumin-positiveinterneurons (Verret et al., Cell 2012, 149:708-721). Three possiblemechanisms by which KD might suppress spikes could be via increasedexploratory movement, exaggeration of the induction in gamma activityfrom a given level of exploratory movement, or increase in baselinegamma activity. Overall movement was similar in all three conditions(FIG. 7d ), and so increased exploratory activity did not explain spikesuppression from KD. Relative gamma activity was also similar betweenthe three conditions (FIG. 7e ). FIG. 7f provides best-fit linearregression lines with 95% CI for scatterplots of per-minute spikes andmovement. APPJ20 mice normally have lower spikes with higher exploratorymovement; KD was associated with spike suppression at all levels ofmovement (FIG. 7f ). FIG. 7g provides best-fit linear regression lineswith 95% CI for scatterplots of per-minute normalized gamma activity andmovement showing no change in the rate of induction of gamma activity bymovement on KD. In other words, the rate of increase of gamma activitywith movement was similar between control diet and KD (FIG. 7g ).Finally, the overall mean level of gamma activity was unchanged for mostmice on KD, and was not associated with change in spikes (FIG. 7h ).Altogether, KD appears to be acting either independently ofparvalbumin-positive interneurons, or downstream of the presynapticpotentials that generate gamma activity in this neuronal population.

Example 7 Long Term Ketogenic Diet Reduces Spikes and Improves CognitionMaterials and Methods

Long-term sustainability of suppression of epileptiform spikes on KD andwhether spike suppression was associated with cognitive improvement wasdetermined as follows. Groups of one-year-old APPJ20 mice (these miceare described in Example 5) were placed on either control diet or KD(diets are described in Example 5) and followed for three months. Theyunderwent seven 50-min EEG recording sessions in the later half of thisperiod (EEG recording methodology is described in Example 5). Inaddition, they underwent habituation to the open field in the firstmonth, while two of the EEG sessions two weeks and five weeks afterhabituation served as probes to test if familiarity with the open fieldfrom the prior habituation would reduce exploratory activity (FIG. 8a ).

Habituation to the open field is a common test of visuospatial memoryand cognitive function (Verret et al., Cell 2012, 149:708-721). Mice areplaced in one of four identical transparent plastic chambers (40×40×30cm) which contains two arrays of photobeams for measuring movement inthe X and Y axis across the chamber floor; as well an additional pair ofarrays elevated in the Z axis for detecting rearing behavior. Theapparatus is controlled by Photobeam Activity System software from SanDiego Instruments. A customized program performs processing of the rawbeam break data. Movement data from the open field is integrated withspike and gamma power data from EEGs using customized programs. Normalmice show rapid habituation, in that their exploratory activity dropsrapidly upon repeated exposure to the open field over days to weeks.APPJ20 mice show impaired habituation, in that exploratory activityremains elevated despite repeated exposure to the open field over daysto weeks (Verret et al., Cell 2012, 149:708-721).

Results

FIGS. 8a-8h show that the reduction in epileptiform spikes as a resultof KD continues for months and is associated with cognitive improvementin habituation to the open field. FIG. 8a provides the experimentaltimeline. Having demonstrated that KD suppresses epileptiform spikes inthe days following initiation of KD, this effect was evaluated todetermine sustainability over weeks to months on the diet, and whetherspikes suppression was associated with cognitive improvement. FIG. 8bshows that long-term KD consistently reduced epileptiform spikes over athree-month period by around 40%, from a mean of 2.51 spikes/min to 1.53(FIG. 8b ). FIGS. 8c and 8d show that spikes were consistentlysuppressed at all levels of movement (FIG. 8d ) and throughout the50-minute recordings (FIG. 8c ), while mice on the control diet showedhigher levels of spikes at periods of low movement later in therecording sessions. As predicted, APPJ20 mice on KD demonstrated reducedexploratory activity upon re-exposure to the open field after earlyhabituation. Overall movement levels were similar to non-transgenic(wild-type) controls (FIGS. 8e and 8f ), as were more specificexploratory movements such as movements through the center (as opposedto the periphery) of the open field (FIG. 8g ) and rearings (FIG. 8h ).APPJ20 transgenc mice on the control diet, by contrast, continued toexhibit hyperactivity and high levels of exploratory movements (FIGS.8e-h ).

The prior 23-hour EEG study was longitudinal (Example 5), with the samemice recorded on both control diet and KD, but this longer-term study bynecessity maintained mice in separate diet groups. In order to confirmthat individual variation in spike levels between APPJ20 mice did notexplain the difference in epileptiform spikes between diet groups overdays to weeks, a second longitudinal study was conducted. A group ofmice was alternated from control diet to KD, obtaining four 50-minuteEEG recordings on each diet. Again, mice showed significant suppressionof epileptiform spikes while on KD, by over 50%, with the sameabrogation of the relationship between exploratory activity and spikesseen previously.

Example 8 Chronic Ketogenic Diet is Associated with Obesity, MaleSurvival, and Improved Learning

Materials and Methods

Cognitive improvements, male survival and obesity from chronic ketogenicdiet were tested in one-year-old APPJ20 mice.

This six-month study was conducted beginning with 2-month-old APPJ20mice (mice are further described in Example 5) and littermate,non-transgenic (wild-type) control mice. The study answered threequestions: 1) does KD fed long-term to mice have adverse metaboliceffects such as obesity; 2) would KD reduce the early mortality commonlyseen in APPJ20 mice, which is ameliorated by other treatments thatsuppress epileptiform spikes; and 3) would APPJ20 mice on KD showimprovement in other visuospatial cognitive tests? Diet interventionsare described in Example 5.

The Morris Water Maze is a common visuospatial memory test. The Mazeconsists of a shallow tub (122 cm diameter) filled with water madeopaque with powered white paint. Large, high-contrast visual cues areplaced on the walls of the room. Mice were habituated to the room and tothe water pool the day before the experiment began. The experimentalprotocol consisted of six days of training (learning) trials followed bya probe (memory) trial 24 hours after the final training trial. Duringthe training trials, a 14×14 cm platform was submerged just below thewater surface. Repeated 60-second trials trained the mice to locate thehidden platform using visual cues from the room. The platform locationwas kept constant during training while the entry point of the mouse waschanged semirandomly between trials. On the final day, the platform wasremoved for the probe trial. Mouse movement was monitored withEthovision video tracking software (Nolus). Performance in the trainingtrials is evaluated by how quickly mice locate the platform during eachtrial. Performance in the probe trial is evaluated by the proportion oftime mice spend swimming in the correct quadrant of the pool, where theplatform had previously been located. Following completion of this 7-dayexperimental protocol, the location of the platform was changed. Micethen underwent 3 days of “reverse training” to this new location,followed again by a probe trial with the platform removed 24 hours afterthe final training trial.

Results

FIGS. 9a-9h demonstrate that long-term ketogenic diet improves cognitionas well as, in males, survival. FIG. 9a shows the change in body weightsfor APPJ20 and NTG mice on either KD or control diet, started at 2months of age. KD was substantially obesogenic for both APPJ20 and NTGmice, causing substantial weight gain. FIG. 9b shows the mean plasma BHBlevels of six morning measurements taken about every two weeks from thestart of the study. Both groups generated plasma BHB levels thataveraged ˜1 mM over the six-month period, generally higher early on.These levels were ˜10-fold higher than mice on the control diet. Plasmaglucose levels were similar in all groups. Males in all groups wereheavier than females, and females had somewhat higher BHB levels on KD.

FIGS. 9c and 9d provide survival curves for APPJ20 male and female miceon KD vs. control diet. There were no deaths among NTG mice. APPJ20 micehave an early mortality as high as 40% that is thought to be due tofatal seizures. A trend towards reduced mortality was determined, andstratification by sex revealed it to be due to a significant reductionin the more severe mortality of male mice; female survival, alreadyhigh, was not affected (FIGS. 9c and 9d ).

FIGS. 9e-9h show the results of Morris water maze testing performedthree months after the start of the diets, when the survivors were 5months old. APP mice on KD showed significantly improved performance inthe hidden-platform training (learning) phase of the water maze (FIG. 9e). This improvement remained consistent when the location of theplatform was moved (reverse training, FIG. 9g ). However, there was nodifference in performance during the probe/memory phase of the watermaze, either following initial hidden platform training or after reversetraining (FIGS. 9f and 9h ).

Example 9 Ketogenic Compounds Suppress Spikes on Normal Diet

Materials and Methods

C6 and C8 esters of butanediol and C6 and C8 esters of β-hydroxybutyratewere synthesized as described above. The C6 ester of β-hydroxybutyratewas tested for efficacy in suppressing spikes in APPJ20 mice byintraperitoneal injection into 1-2 year-old APPJ20 mice including bothmale and female mice. The APPJ20 mice were described in Example 5.

EEGs were recorded from APPJ20 mice before and after intraperitonealinjection of C6-BHB, or an equivalent volume of saline. Followingcompletion of the first 50 min recording, the injection was performed.Mice were then allowed to recover for 20 minutes in their home cage,followed by the second 50 min EEG recording. Blood was drawn immediatelyfollowing completion of the second EEG session in order to measureplasma BHB levels (as described in Example 4). The lower of the twopreviously tested doses from Example 4 was injected, 50 μL per 30 g bodyweight, which is approximately 1.5 g/kg and approximately 0.2millimoles.

During the EEG recordings, mice were freely moving in a transparentcylinder approximately the size of a home cage. Methodology forrecording and analysis of EEGs and video tracking for movement wasdescribed in Example 5. Methodology for blood draws and plasma BHBmeasurement was described in Example 4.

The study used a cross-over design where all mice were injected withboth C6-BHB and normal saline on different days, with at least 48 hoursbetween injections. Data analysis was limited to mice that completed allinjections and EEG recordings.

Results

FIGS. 10a-10f demonstrate that compounds described herein that aremetabolized to BHB immediately reduce epileptiform spikes. FIG. 10aprovides a schematic of example ketogenic compounds having amedium-chain fatty acid ester-linked to BHB. FIG. 10b shows thatinjection of C6-BHB increased blood BHB levels, measured approximately70-80 minutes after injection (following EEG). Injection of C6-BHBincreased plasma BHB levels from a median of approximately 200 μM to amedian of approximately 600 μM. FIG. 10c shows that injection of C6-BHBreduces spikes compared to both pre-injection baselines and injection ofsaline. A plot of average spikes over the 50-minute EEG recording (FIG.10d ) shows consistent reduction after C6-BHB injection, similar to KD.C6-BHB reduced epileptiform spikes by approximately 35% compared tosaline injection, from 1.25 spikes/min to 0.82 spikes/min Analysis ofspike reduction after C6-BHB, compared to after saline, at theindividual mouse level shows significant reductions for most mice(filled circles, P<0.05; bar=median) (FIG. 10e ). The difference inspikes between C6-BHB and saline injection was most pronounced when micewere at rest (and gamma activity is lowest), similar to KD (FIG. 10f ).

Summary of Results of Examples 6-9

Disruption of normal network activity and associated epileptiform spikesfrom dysfunctional inhibitory interneurons are important for thepathogenesis of cognitive decline in Alzheimer's disease mouse models.Treatments that reduce epileptiform spikes improve cognition in thesemodels. Ketogenic diet and fasting has been used to treat certain formsof epilepsy, including those mechanistically related to disruptednetwork activity in Alzheimer's models. For example, reduced expressionof the sodium channel subunit SCN1A was found to be a key mechanismleading to early mortality, epileptiform spikes, and cognitiveimpairment in APPJ20 mice, and restoration of normal expression improvedthese deficits (Verret et al., 2012). There is a group of human geneticseizure disorders due to mutations in SCN1A, including Dravet syndrome,which are often refractory to conventional antiepileptic medications butcan respond to a ketogenic diet (KD) (Korff et al., J Child Neurol 2007,22:185). SCN1A mutant mice also respond to KD (Dutton et al., Epilepsia2011, 52:2050). Studies were undertaken to determine whether KD couldreduce epileptiform spikes and thereby improve cognition in a mousemodel of Alzheimer's disease.

Ketogenic diet, but not fasting, consistently reduced epileptiformspikes in the APPJ20 Alzheimer's mouse model. This reduction in spikeswas independent or downstream of inhibitory interneuron function. Theeffect on spike reduction was sustained through several months oftreatment. Long-term treatment resulted in cognitive improvement in thewater maze and in habituation to the open field, and in the moreseverely affected male APPJ20 mice also improved survival. Finally,treatment with compounds described herein that are metabolized to theketone body β-hydroxybutyrate immediately reduced epileptiform spikes toa similar degree as ketogenic diet. Agents that increase blood levels ofβ-hydroxybutyrate or act on downstream targets of β-hydroxybutyrate areprovided herein in the treatment of Alzheimer's disease throughimproving network function and ameliorating epileptiform activity.

Example 10 Pilot Feeding Study Using Food Supplemented with C6 Ester ofβ-hydroxybutyrate

Materials and Methods

C6 monoester of β-hydroxybutyrate was synthesized as described above andpurified for testing in mice. The C6 monoester of β-hydroxybutyrate wasmixed into ground control food (10% calories from protein), the samecontrol diet used in the above examples involving ketogenic and controldiet. The food was placed in a glass jar inside the animal cage at thestart of the nighttime feeding cycle, 19:00 h. Different concentrationsof the C6 monoester of β-hydroxybutyrate (w/w) were mixed into thecontrol diet to determine which concentration was sufficient to raiseBHB levels in the mice. n=4 mice/condition (2 mice per cage). All micewere 12 month-old C57BL/6 males.

Results

FIG. 11 depicts intake over time of food containing differentconcentrations of C6 esters of β-hydroxybutyrate. Food containing 10%and 20% by weight C6 monoester of β-hydroxybutyrate was observed to beless palatable to the mice and was ingested at a lower rate.Incorporating 5% by weight of the C6 monoester of β-hydroxybutyrate didnot change the amount of food consumed by mice over the first 12 hoursrelative to control.

FIG. 12 depicts weight loss by the mice over time while fed a dietcontaining different amounts of the C6 monoester of β-hydroxybutyrate.The weight loss exhibited by mice fed a diet containing 2.5% and 5% byweight of the C6 esters of β-hydroxybutyrate was not attributed tofasting as a normal amount of food was ingested by the mice over thecourse of the study.

FIG. 13 depicts the blood glucose levels of the mice during the courseof the feeding study. Mice ingesting the control food composition andthose ingesting food with different amounts of the C6 monoester ofβ-hydroxybutyrate exhibited blood glucose levels within the normal rangeof glycaemia (min.=70 mg/dL; max=180 mg/dL). Mice ingesting food having10% and 20% by weight of the C6 monoester of β-hydroxybutyrate exhibiteddecreasing blood glucose over the first 12 hours. Observations indicatedthat these mice consumed little food having 10% and 20% by weight of theC6 monoester of β-hydroxybutyrate during the first 12 hours. Withoutintending to be bound by any particular theory, it is believed that thisfasting resulted in the decrease in blood glucose for these conditions.

FIG. 14 depicts the blood concentration of β-hydroxybutyrate over timeafter feeding the mice with food having different amounts of the C6monoester of β-hydroxybutyrate. A diet containing 2.5% by weight or 5%by weight of the C6 monoester of β-hydroxybutyrate resulted in a slightincrease in BHB level in the blood, but was insufficient to provide alevel greater than the targeted 500 threshold. Mice fed a diet including10% or 20% by weight of the C6 monoester of β-hydroxybutyrate exhibiteda greater increase in β-hydroxybutyrate concentration. However, withoutintending to be bound by any particular theory, it is believed that thisincrease in BHB level was likely not a result of the higherconcentration of the C6 monoester of β-hydroxybutyrate in the diet,since the mice ate very little of the food. Rather, this increase isprobably explained by the mice fasting.

Example 11 Pilot Feeding Study Using Food Supplemented with Esters ofβ-hydroxybutyrate and Butanediol

Materials and Methods

Different esters of β-hydroxybutyrate and butanediol were synthesized asdescribed above and purified for testing in mice. The esters ofβ-hydroxybutyrate and butanediol that were supplemented into the diet ofthe mice in this study were as follows: 1) C8 diesters of butanediol(C8x2-BD); 2) C8 monoesters of β-hydroxybutyrate (C8-BHB); 3) C6diesters of β-hydroxybutyrate (C6x2-BHB); 4) C6 monoesters ofβ-hydroxybutyrate (C6-BHB); and 5) C6 diesters of butanediol (C6x2-BD).Food compositions supplemented with 1,3-butanediol were also tested.Compounds were mixed at 10% w/w in ground normal chow (20% calories fromprotein) to match standard vivarium feed. The food was provided in aglass jar inside the animal cage. n=2 mice/condition, 18 mice total. Allmice were 12 month-old C57BL/6 males. Mice were placed in individualcages to record food intake more precisely. Food was switched back tonormal chow at 72 hrs (ground and in a glass jar).

Results

FIG. 15 depicts intake over time of food containing the above-listedesters of butanediol and esters of β-hydroxybutyrate. The control was anormal chow diet without supplement. Food supplemented with1,3-butanediol, a 6-carbon fatty acid ester-linked to a 2-carbon alkylgroup (C6) which served as a control to the C6 monoester ofβ-hydroxybutyrate and a 6-carbon fatty acid ester-linked to a 6-carbonalkyl group (C6x2) which served as a control to the C6 diester ofβ-hydroxybutyrate was also tested.

Depending on the compound, the mice needed 2 to 4 days to adapt to thetaste/smell of the supplemented chow and start eating normal amounts.

FIG. 16 depicts weight loss in the mice over time when fed foodcompositions supplemented with the different esters of butanediol andβ-hydroxybutyrate. The results show a clear distinction betweencompounds causing significant weight loss and those causing weight losssimilar to control. Mice fed a diet supplemented with C8 diesters ofbutanediol lost approximately the same amount of weight as thoseconsuming the control food composition, whereas mice consuming C6diesters of β-hydroxybutyrate, C6 diesters of butanediol, C8 monoestersof β-hydroxybutyrate, and C6 monoesters of β-hydroxybutyrate exhibitedsignificant weight loss. Without intending to be bound by any particulartheory, it is believed that these results are not solely explained bydifferences in food intake (e.g., food intake of C6x2-BD was normal, butweight loss still resulted). Without intending to be bound by anyparticular theory, it is believed that the weight loss of the controlmice can be explained by lower food intake at the beginning of theexperiment while adapting to the texture and placement of ground food,and higher heat loss resulting from the use of individual cages.

FIG. 17 depicts the blood glucose levels of the mice during the courseof the feeding study. Mice ingesting the control food composition andthose ingesting food containing the different types of esters ofbutanediol and β-hydroxybutyrate exhibited blood glucose levels with thenormal range of glycaemia (min.=70 mg/dL; max=180 mg/dL). Some of theexhibited hypoglycaemias can be explained by fasting (C8-BHB) and C6),but others (C6-BHB) are likely a result of the compound. No sedation wasobserved.

FIG. 18 depicts the blood concentration of β-hydroxybutyrate over timeafter feeding the mice with food containing the different esters ofbutanediol and β-hydroxybutyrate. The horizontal dotted line shows thetargeted 500 μM threshold. In interpreting the results, the fastingeffect should be taken into account. For example, the high BHB value forC8-BHB is likely a result of fasting rather than a result of thecompound itself. A day/night pattern also becomes apparent after 48hours, with high BHB during the nighttime feeding period, and lower BHBduring the day. Without intending to be bound by any particular theory,it is believed this diurnal pattern is consistent with the ingestedcompounds being converted in the body to BHB during the feeding period.

Example 12 Mice Feeding Study of Food Supplemented with C6 Diesters ofβ-Hydroxybutyrate

Materials and Methods

Based on the results of the above Pilot studies, the C6 diesters ofβ-hydroxybutyrate were selected for a longer study with a greater numberof mice to see if it would remain ketogenic even after food intakenormalized. C6 diesters of β-hydroxybutyrate were synthesized asdescribed above and purified for testing in mice. The C6 diesters ofβ-hydroxybutyrate were mixed at 10% w/w into ground standard chow diet(20% calories from protein), which was re-formed into pellets.Re-pelleted food was used to minimize any variable effects from a changein diet texture to ground.

The pelleted food was consumed by the mice after being placed in a glassjar in the animal cage. Four mice per diet were tested, with the miceindividually caged. All mice were 12 month-old C57BL/6 males. Dailyweight and caloric intake was monitored and blood was drawn for glucoseand β-hydroxybutyrate levels on the eighth night. Mice fed with foodsupplemented with C6 esters of β-hydroxybutyrate initially ate less foodand lost weight. By the 7^(th) night, the weights of the mice stabilizedand 24 hour caloric intake was similar between the control diet and themice that consumed food supplemented with C6 esters ofβ-hydroxybutyrate. On the eighth night, both groups of mice consumedsimilar calories in the four hours between the start of the naturalfeeding time at 19:00 h and the time that blood was drawn starting at23:00 h.

Results

FIG. 19 depicts a comparison of the plasma β-hydroxybutyrate, bloodglucose and caloric intake of mice fed the control diet and mice fed adiet supplemented with 10% w/w C6 diesters of β-hydroxybutyrate. Themice fed the diet supplemented with C6 diesters of β-hydroxybutyrateexhibited greater β-hydroxybutyrate plasma concentrations, even as partof a normal diet with normal caloric intake, and reached the targeted500 μM threshold.

While the present invention has been described with reference to thespecific embodiments thereof, it should be understood by those skilledin the art that various changes may be made and equivalents may besubstituted without departing from the true spirit and scope of theinvention. In addition, many modifications may be made to adapt aparticular situation, material, composition of matter, process, processstep or steps, to the objective, spirit and scope of the presentinvention. All such modifications are intended to be within the scope ofthe claims appended hereto.

What is claimed is:
 1. A compound of formula I:

wherein R₁ is H or C(1-6) alkyl or substituted alkyl; and R₂ and R₃ areindependently unsubstituted or substituted C(4-30) alkyl.
 2. Thecompound according to claim 1, wherein R₁ is an unsubstituted C(1-6)alkyl.
 3. The compound according to claim 2, wherein R₁ is methyl. 4.The compound according to any one of claims 1-3, wherein R₂ and R₃ areindependently unsubstituted C(6-18) alkyl.
 5. The compound according toany one of claims 1-3, wherein R₂ and R₃ are independently unsubstitutedC6 alkyl.
 6. The compound according to any one of claims 1-3, wherein R₂and R₃ are independently unsubstituted C8 alkyl.
 7. A compound accordingto claim 1, wherein the compound is of formula Ia:

wherein R₁ is H or C(1-6) alkyl or substituted alkyl; and R₂ and R₃ areindependently unsubstituted or substituted C(4-30) alkyl.
 8. Thecompound according to claim 7, wherein R₁ is an unsubstituted C(1-6)alkyl.
 9. The compound according to claim 8, wherein R₁ is methyl. 10.The compound according to any one of claims 7-9, wherein R₂ and R₃ areindependently unsubstituted C(6-18) alkyl.
 11. The compound according toany one of claims 7-9, wherein R₂ and R₃ are independently unsubstitutedC6 alkyl.
 12. The compound according to any one of claims 7-9, whereinR₂ and R₃ are independently unsubstituted C8 alkyl.
 13. A compoundaccording to claim 1, wherein the compound is of formula Ib:

wherein R₁ is H or C(1-6) alkyl or substituted alkyl; and R₂ and R₃ areindependently unsubstituted or substituted C(4-30) alkyl.
 14. Thecompound according to claim 13, wherein R₁ is an unsubstituted C(1-6)alkyl.
 15. The compound according to claim 14, wherein R₁ is methyl. 16.The compound according to any one of claims 13-15, wherein R₂ and R₃ areindependently unsubstituted C(6-18) alkyl.
 17. The compound according toany one of claims 13-15, wherein R₂ and R₃ are independentlyunsubstituted C6 alkyl.
 18. The compound according to any one of claims13-15, wherein R₂ and R₃ are independently unsubstituted C8 alkyl.
 19. Acomposition comprising a compound according to any one of claims 1-18and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier.
 20. A method comprisingadministering to a subject in need thereof, a therapeutically effectiveamount of a compound according to any one of claims 1-18 or acomposition according to claim
 19. 21. The method according to claim 20,wherein the therapeutically effective amount is sufficient to reduceepileptiform activity in the brain of the subject.
 22. A method fortreating one or more of Alzheimer's disease, epilepsy, Parkinson'sdisease, heart failure, traumatic brain injury, stroke, hemorrhagicshock, acute lung injury after fluid resuscitation, acute kidney injury,myocardial infarction, myocardial ischemia, diabetes, glioblastomamultiforme, diabetic neuropathy, prostate cancer, amyotrophic lateralsclerosis, Huntington's disease, cutaneous T cell lymphoma, multiplemyeloma, peripheral T cell lymphoma, HIV, Niemann-Pick Type C disease,age-related macular degeneration, gout, atherosclerosis, rheumatoidarthritis and multiple sclerosis comprising: administering to a subjecta therapeutically effective amount of a compound according to any one ofclaims 1-18 or a composition according to claim
 19. 23. The methodaccording to claim 22, wherein the therapeutically effective amount issufficient to reduce epileptiform activity in the brain of the subject.24. A method of reducing epileptiform activity in the brain of asubject, the method comprising administering to the subject atherapeutically effective amount of a compound according to any one ofclaims 1-18 or a composition according to claim
 19. 25. A foodsupplement comprising a compound according to any one of claims 1-18.26. A composition comprising: a food supplement comprising a compoundaccording to any one of claims 1-18; and one or more additionalcomponents of a ketogenic diet.
 27. The composition according to claim26, wherein the compound is present in the composition in an amount offrom about 1% w/w to about 25% w/w.
 28. The composition according toclaim 26, wherein the compound is present in the composition in anamount of from about 5% w/w to about 15% w/w.
 29. The compositionaccording to claim 26, wherein the compound is present in thecomposition in an amount of about 10% w/w.
 30. The composition accordingto claim 26, wherein the ketogenic diet comprises a ratio by mass of fatto protein and carbohydrates of from about 2:1 to about 10:1.
 31. Thecomposition according to claim 30, wherein the ketogenic diet comprisesa ratio by mass of fat to protein and carbohydrates of from about 3:1 toabout 6:1.
 32. The composition according to claim 30, wherein theketogenic diet comprises a ratio by mass of fat to protein andcarbohydrates of about 4:1.
 33. A compound of formula II:

wherein R₄ is H or C(1-6) alkyl or substituted alkyl; and R₅ and R₆ areindependently unsubstituted or substituted C(4-30) alkyl.
 34. Thecompound according to claim 33, wherein R₄ is an unsubstituted C(1-6)alkyl.
 35. The compound according to claim 34, wherein R₄ is methyl. 36.The compound according to any one of claims 33-35, wherein R₅ and R₆ areindependently unsubstituted C(6-18) alkyl.
 37. The compound according toany one of claims 33-35, wherein R₅ and R₆ are independentlyunsubstituted C6 alkyl.
 38. The compound according to any one of claims33-35, wherein R₅ and R₆ are independently unsubstituted C8 alkyl.
 39. Acompound according to claim 33, wherein the compound is of formula Ia:

wherein R₄ is H or C(1-6) alkyl or substituted alkyl; and R₅ and R₆ areindependently unsubstituted or substituted C(4-30) alkyl.
 40. Thecompound according to claim 39, wherein R₄ is an unsubstituted C(1-6)alkyl.
 41. The compound according to claim 40, wherein R₄ is methyl. 42.The compound according to any one of claims 39-41, wherein R₅ and R₆ areindependently unsubstituted C(6-18) alkyl.
 43. The compound according toany one of claims 39-41, wherein R₅ and R₆ are independentlyunsubstituted C6 alkyl.
 44. The compound according to any one of claims39-41, wherein R₅ and R₆ are independently unsubstituted C8 alkyl.
 45. Acompound according to claim 33, wherein the compound is of formula Ib:

wherein R₄ is H or C(1-6) alkyl or substituted alkyl; and R₅ and R₆ areindependently unsubstituted or substituted C(4-30) alkyl.
 46. Thecompound according to claim 45, wherein R₄ is an unsubstituted C(1-6)alkyl.
 47. The compound according to claim 46, wherein R₄ is methyl. 48.The compound according to any one of claims 45-47, wherein R₅ and R₆ areindependently unsubstituted C(6-18) alkyl.
 49. The compound according toany one of claims 45-47, wherein R₅ and R₆ are independentlyunsubstituted C6 alkyl.
 50. The compound according to any one of claims45-47, wherein R₅ and R₆ are independently unsubstituted C8 alkyl.
 51. Acomposition comprising a compound according to any one of claims 33-50and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier.
 52. A method comprisingadministering to a subject in need thereof, a therapeutically effectiveamount of a compound according to any one of claims 33-50 or acomposition according to claim
 51. 53. The method according to claim 52,wherein the therapeutically effective amount is sufficient to reduceepileptiform activity in the brain of the subject.
 54. A method fortreating one or more of Alzheimer's disease, epilepsy, Parkinson'sdisease, heart failure, traumatic brain injury, stroke, hemorrhagicshock, acute lung injury after fluid resuscitation, acute kidney injury,myocardial infarction, myocardial ischemia, diabetes, glioblastomamultiforme, diabetic neuropathy, prostate cancer, amyotrophic lateralsclerosis, Huntington's disease, cutaneous T cell lymphoma, multiplemyeloma, peripheral T cell lymphoma, HIV, Niemann-Pick Type C disease,age-related macular degeneration, gout, atherosclerosis, rheumatoidarthritis and multiple sclerosis comprising: administering to a subjecta therapeutically effective amount of a compound according to any one ofclaims 33-50 or a composition according to claim
 51. 55. The methodaccording to claim 54, wherein the therapeutically effective amount issufficient to reduce epileptiform activity in the brain of the subject.56. A method of reducing epileptiform activity in the brain of asubject, the method comprising administering to the subject atherapeutically effective amount of a compound according to any one ofclaims 33-50 or a composition according to claim
 51. 57. A foodsupplement comprising a compound according to any one of claims 33-50.58. A composition comprising: a food supplement comprising a compoundaccording to any one of claims 33-50; and one or more components of aketogenic diet.
 59. The composition according to claim 58, wherein thecompound is present in the composition in an amount of from about 1% w/wto about 25% w/w.
 60. The composition according to claim 58, wherein thecompound is present in the composition in an amount of from about 5% w/wto about 15% w/w.
 61. The composition according to claim 58, wherein thecompound is present in the composition in an amount of about 10% w/w.62. The composition according to claim 58, wherein the ketogenic dietcomprises a ratio by mass of fat to protein and carbohydrates of fromabout 2:1 to about 10:1.
 63. The composition according to claim 58,wherein the ketogenic diet comprises a ratio by mass of fat to proteinand carbohydrates of from about 3:1 to about 6:1.
 64. The compositionaccording to claim 58, wherein the ketogenic diet comprises a ratio bymass of fat to protein and carbohydrates of about 4:1.